REESE  LIBRARY 

OF  THK 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

Deceived 
Accession  No.  /  6~Q/£?    .   Class  No. 


I  i 


The  Nature  &  Development 


OF 


Animal     Intelligence 


By 
WESLEY   MILLS,  M.A.,  M.D,  D.V.S,  F.R.S.C. 

PROFESSOR  OF   PHYSIOLOGY   IN   M'GILL   UNIVERSITY,    MONTREAL,   CANADA, 

AUTHOR  OF  "ANIMAL  PHYSIOLOGY,"  "  COMPARATIVE  PHYSIOLOGY," 
"THE  DOG  IN  HEALTH  AND  IN  DISEASE,"  ETC. 


NEW    YORK 
THE    MACMILLAN    COMPANY 

MDCCCXCVIII 


71-0/2 


[All  rights  reserved.  ] 


Bl< 
LIBRARY 
G 


PREFACE 

FROM  various  quarters  the  suggestion  has  come  to  me 
to  prepare  a  work  on  Comparative  Psychology,  as  it 
was  known  that  this  subject  has  engaged  my  attention 
in  no  small  measure  for  many  years.  It  would  be 
easy  enough  to  collect  an  additional  number  of 
anecdotes  of  animals,  and  pen  some  reflections  on 
them.  It  might  be  possible  to  gather  together  some 
accounts  of  the  doings  of  animals  of  undoubted 
accuracy  and  examine  these  critically,  but  all  this 
has  been  done,  and  we  must  now  enter  on  another 
stage — that  of  exact,  systematic  observation  and  ex- 
periment. There  are,  however,  many  methods  by 
which  so  broad  a  science  as  Comparative  Psychology 
can  be  advanced,  and  I  hope  no  word  I  may  write 
may  suggest  any  of  those  narrow  views  for  which  even 
scientific  men  are  sometimes  to  be  held  responsible. 
There  are  many  points  of  view,  and  it  will  be  well 
to  gather  observations  and  opinions  from  every  proper 
source  available. 

My  own  views  as  to  the  nature  and  scope  of  Com- 
parative Psychology  will  best  be  gathered  from  the 


VI  PREFACE 

following  pages,  so  that  I  will  now  quote  to  the  reader 
a  few  lines  from  the  writings  of  others. 

Prof.  C.  S.  Minot,  in  a  review  of  Prof.  C.  Lloyd 
Morgan's  "  Habit  and  Instinct/5  writes  thus  : — 

"As  a  naturalist,  it  has  seemed  to  me  that  the 
naturalist's  method  has  an  immense  future  in  Psy- 
chology. The  method  includes  two  main  factors : 
the  observation  of  details,  and  the  comparison  of 
homologous  phenomena  in  different  forms  of  life ;  and 
the  method  starts  from  the  standpoint  of  evolution. 
There  need  be  no  restriction,  of  course,  upon  the  three 
aspects  of  Psychology  which  have  heretofore  prevailed 
— the  metaphysical,  introspective,  and  experimental, 
but  there  should  come  soon,  and  with  revolutionary 
power,  not  merely  enlarged  interest  in,  and  sympathy 
with,  Comparative  Evolutional  Psychology,  but  more 
than  that — eagerness  to  enter  this  field  of  enquiry  and 
to  share  in  harvesting  it"  (Psych.  Rev.,  vol.  iv.  No.  3, 
p.  313). 

Those  who  do  me  the  honour  of  reading  the  pages  of 
this  book  will  learn  for  themselves  how  completely 
I  share  Professor  Minot's  views,  and  that  my  convic- 
tions have  been  followed  by  corresponding  action. 

But  one  may  well  ask  :  Who  is  able  for  so  great  a 
task  ?  I  know  of  no  higher  ideal  of  the  requirements 
for  the  worker  in  Comparative  Psychology  than  that 
set  forth  by  Prof.  Groos  in  his  "  Die  Spiele  der 
Thiere."  He  well  says :  "  The  author  of  a  psychology 
of  animal  play  should  have,  in  reality,  not  alone  two, 
but  many  souls  within  his  breast."  He  would  have 


PREFACE  Vll 

him  combine,  with  all  the  varied  ideas  and  experiences 
of  a  man  who  has  traversed  the  round  globe,  the 
special  knowledge  of  the  director  of  a  zoological 
garden,  and  also  that  of  him  who  has  penetrated  the 
life-secrets  of  the  forest,  and  who  can,  moreover,  take 
the  point  of  view  of  the  student  of  aesthetics.  If  these 
are  the  qualifications  for  the  special  investigation  of 
animal  play,  they  are  not  less  called  for  in  the  other 
realms  of  Comparative  Psychology. 

While  the  present  writer  can  lay  claim  to  no  such 
roundness  of  culture,  he  thinks  he  can  confidently 
assert  that  nothing  will  be  found  in  the  following  pages 
that  has  not  some  basis  in  his  own  observations  or 
experience. 

The  Author  has  on  more  than  one  occasion  expressed 
his  belief  that  mere  closet  psychology  is  of  little 
value  in  advancing  the  subject  as  applied  to  animals. 
Accordingly,  it  will  be  found  that  by  far  the.  greater 
part  of  this  book  is  made  up  of  the  facts  of  observation. 

In  determining  the  form  the  work  should  take,  I 
had  to  consider  whether  to  re-cast  all  the  material  I 
had  been  accumulating  for  the  last  fifteen  years,  or 
republish  what  had  already  appeared  in  an  almost 
unaltered  form.  It  seemed  to  me  that  in  the  end  the 
advancement  of  the  subject  would  be  best  served  by 
the  latter  course.  While  there  may  be  some  repetition 
in  the  papers  that  constitute  the  first  part  of  the  work, 
this  will  serve  to  emphasise  the  views  that  have  been 
impressed  more  and  more  on  one  who  has  for  ten  years 
been  in  daily  intimate  association  with  animals,  and  a 


Vlll  PREFACE 

close  and  unprejudiced  (as  far  as  may  be)  observer  of 
their  life-ways. 

Unless  I  mistake,  there  is  now  an  interest  in  the 
study  of  animals  altogether  unprecedented,  and  I  hope 
to  see  appear,  within  the  next  few  years,  accounts  of 
researches  which,  in  many  respects,  will  be  in  advance 
of  anything  yet  produced.  It  is  largely  with  the  view 
of  stimulating  such  researches  that  I  have  concluded 
to  publish  the  principal  results  of  my  own  observations 
and  thinkings  up  to  the  present  time,  in  a  form  readily 
accessible  to  all  who  may  be  interested  in  such  studies. 
As  I  believe  the  facts  to  be  of  by  far  the  most  value 
in  our  present  stage  of  progress,  they  will  be  found 
to  preponderate  over  theory.  Laws,  of  course,  we 
should  try  to  establish,  but  I  believe  that  we  must  go 
on  as  patient  observers  and  experimenters  for  many 
years  yet  to  come,  before  large  generalisations  can 
be  safely  formulated. 

There  will  be  some — possibly  in  high  places — who 
may  hold  such  work  in  light  esteem,  but  they  will 
find  that,  sooner  or  later,  their  lofty  seats  must  be 
vacated,  and  that  they  must  come  down  and  delve. 
Filling  up  books  and  periodicals  is  one  thing,  and 
reaching  truth  another. 

The  work  is  divisible  into  four  parts.  Part  I.  con- 
sists of  addresses,  in  which  my  own  views  of  the 
subject  are  set  forth.  Part  II.  of  studies,  largely 
practical,  of  two  interesting  states — feigning  and 
hibernation.  These  are  on  the  borderland  between 
natural  history  and  psychology,  but  must  have 


PREFACE  IX 

special  interest  from  whatever  point  of  view  regarded. 
Part  III.  is,  in  my  own  opinion,  much  the  most- 
important  part  of  the  book.  It  is  a  storehouse  of 
reliable  facts,  from  which  each  reader  may  draw 
his  own  conclusions.  Part  IV.  consists  of  discussions 
on  a  subject  of  considerable  importance,  as  will  be 
evident.  This  division  of  the  work  into  parts  rather 
than  chapters  permits  of  the  reading  of  any  one 
division  of  the  work  by  those  who  may  not  desire 
to  peruse  the  whole. 

The  prosecution  of  these  studies  has  necessitated 
the  breeding  and  rearing  of  a  large  number  of  pure- 
bred animals  during  the  last  ten  years,  and  while  it 
has  involved  considerable  expense  for  one  who  has 
received  no  special  favours  from  Dame  Fortune,  the 
work  has  been  a  source  of  pleasure,  and,  it  is  hoped, 
some  psychological  and  biological  wisdom  also  to 
myself ;  and  if  it  leads  to  a  truer  and  more  complete 
study  of  the  psychic  nature  of  animals  than  hereto- 
fore, the  Author  will  feel  that  his  time,  labour,  and 
money  have  not  been  expended  in  vain. 

I  count  myself  fortunate  in  being  able,  by  the 
kind  permission  of  Mr  T.  Mann  Jones,  of  Northam, 
England,  to  embody  in  this  book,  in  the  form  of 
brief  notes,  some  of  the  observations  and  reflections 
of  so  experienced  and  accurate  a  student  of  animal 
intelligence  as  he  has  proved  himself  to  be.  Mr  Jones 
took  the  pains  to  write  me,  at  considerable  length, 
after  reading  my  notes  on  psychic  development,  for 
which  I  am  very  grateful. 


X  PREFACE 

"Animal  Intelligence  and  how  to  Study  It," 
appeared,  in  the  first  instance,  in  The  Sherbrooke 
Examiner;  "  Comparative  Psychology,"  etc.,  in  Appletons' 
Popular  Science  Monthly  ;  "  Psychology  and  Comparative 
Psychology,"  in  Science  ;  "  Squirrels :  their  Habits  and 
Intelligence,"  etc.,  and  all  the  papers  following,  as  far 
as  page  276,  in  the  Transactions,  Royal  Society  of 
Canada  ;  the  "  Discussion  on  Instinct,"  etc.,  in  Science. 

I  desire  to  offer  my  thanks  to  the  Editors  and 
Publishers  of  the  before-mentioned  periodicals  for 
their  courtesy  in  readily  assenting  to  re-publication 
of  the  papers  referred  to,  as  also  to  those  contributors 
who  have  kindly  allowed  me  to  embody  their  views  in 
this  book. 

As  the  discussions  in  Part  IV.  are  printed  just  as 
they  originally  appeared,  perhaps  it  may  be  well  to 
state  that  Professor  Morgan's  views  on  the  subjects 
under  consideration  may  be  found  fully  developed 
in  his  "Habit  and  Instinct,"  and  Professor  J.  Mark 
Baldwin's  in  papers  that  have  appeared  in  the 
American  Naturalist,  Science,  and  the  Psychological 
Review,  though  such  contributions  cover  a  wider 
field  than  that  traversed  in  the  discussions  to  which 
reference  is  now  made. 

THE   AUTHOR 


CONTENTS 

PART   I. 


*  HIBERNATION  AND  ALLIED  STATES  IN  ANIMALS  . 


PAGE 


T  FAGE 

ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE,  AND  HOW  TO  STUDY  IT  1 

COMPARATIVE  PSYCHOLOGY  :  ITS  OBJECTS  AND  PROBLEMS        17 
COMPARATIVE  PSYCHOLOGY  .  01 

ol 

PSYCHOLOGY  AND  COMPARATIVE  PSYCHOLOGY       .  46 

PART   II. 

SQUIRRELS:  THEIR  HABITS  AND  INTELLIGENCE,  WITH 
SPECIAL  KEPERENCE  TO  FEIGNING,  WITH  AN 
APPENDIX 


79 


PART  III. 

THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS,  AND 

ITS  PHYSICAL  CORRELATION  ...  .  113 


Xll  CONTENTS 


PAGE 

THE    FUNCTIONAL    DEVELOPMENT   OF   THE   CEREBRAL 

CORTEX  IN  DIFFERENT  GROUPS  OF  ANIMALS  264 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS  AND 
ITS  PHYSICAL  (SOMATIC)  CORRELATION,  WITH 
SPECIAL  REFERENCE  TO  THE  BRAIN  .  .  267 

PAKT  IV. 

DISCUSSIONS  ON  INSTINCT  .  277 


ANIMAL   INTELLIGENCE 


PART    I. 

ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE,  AND  HOW  TO 
STUDY  IT  * 

Is  there  any  sane  human  being  who  is  uninfluenced 
by  the  advent  of  springtime  ?  Bright  skies  and 
balmy  air  have  no  doubt  much  to  do  with  that  heigh- 
tened good-feeling  which  we  experience,  but  do  they 
explain  the  whole  change  in  our  being  at  that  time  ? 
The  budding  trees  and  the  springing  grass  have  no 
small  share  in  the  happy  effect,  but  even  yet  the 
analysis  is  far  from  complete.  With  no  insects  on  the 
wing,  no  birds  in  the  trees,  no  squirrels  frisking  among 
the  boughs — would  spring  be  spring  ?  Are  we  not  also 
influenced  by  the  effect  of  the  great  contrasted  change 
in  our  fellow-men  ? 

The  truth  is,  that  no  normal  person  is  utterly  in- 
different to  the  world  of  life  about  him.  But  when 
squirrels  frisk  and  birds  carol,  why  is  it  that  we  regard 
them  differently  from  mere  mechanisms  worked  by  a 
string  ?  When  we  cage  the  bird  or  the  squirrel,  and 
they  become  tame,  why  do  we  apply  such  terms  as, 
"  dear  little  fellow,"  "  sweet  pet,"  etc  ?  Why  does  the 

*  An  Address  delivered  to  pupils  of   the  Bishop's  College 
School,  Lennoxville,  October  1896. 

A 


2  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

fond  mother  thus  address  her  infant  ?  If  the  reply 
were — Because  she  cannot  help  it,  would  it  not  express 
an  uncontrovertible  truth  ?  If  you  choose,  I  will  put 
the  same  in  another  form  and  say,  because  it  is  natural 
for  her  to  do  so.  But  these  endearing  terms  are  used 
by  the  father,  the  brother,  the  sister,  and  even  the  one 
who  drops  in  as  a  casual  visitor,  and  is  not  in  the 
remotest  way  allied  by  blood.  While  in  these  instances 
there  may  be  something -in  the  intellect  and  feelings  of 
each,  not  in  those  of  the  other,  there  is  much  in 
common — at  least  such  we  must  assume,  if  we  are  to 
furnish  any  reasonable  explanation  of  the  facts.  So 
that  when  the  mother,  the  father,  the  brother,  or 
the  sister  speak  of  the  squirrel  as  a  "dear  little 
fellow,"  or  the  cage  bird  as  a  "  sweet  pet,"  they  must 
recognise  in  him  some  of  those  same  qualities  which 
render  the  infant  human  being  attractive.  The  fact  is, 
we  make  the  world  of  animal  life  about  us  a  reflection 
of  ourselves ;  we  spontaneously  implant  in  the  bird  and 
the  squirrel  qualities  that  are  our  own.  They  interest 
in  proportion  as  they  seem  to  embody  the  same 
thoughts  and  feelings  as  ourselves.  We  assume  that 
they  have  the  same  pleasures,  pains — even  the  same 
hopes  and  fears.  Man  makes  himself  the  measure  of  all 
things  when  he  follows  primitive  impulses,  and  this  is 
the  real  explanation  of  the  interest  that  the  great  mass 
of  human  beings  take  in  the  world  of  animal  life  in 
general,  and  more  especially  in  these  animals  with 
which  we  are  brought  into  daily  contact. 

It  must  be  clear  that  this  is  perfectly  natural,  as 
much  so  as  to  feel  a  sympathy  with  our  fellow-men, 
though  in  a  less  complete  and  perfect  way.  It  is  only 
when  certain  animals  are  believed  to  be  disagreeable  or 
dangerous  that  they  become  repulsive,  and  in  pro- 
portion as  they  seem  to  approach  our  ways  of  viewing 
things  and  share  our  feelings,  are  we  drawn  to  them. 


ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE,  AND   HOW  TO   STUDY  IT         3 

If  Tom  Jones  is  not  interested  equally  in  all  the 
dogs  he  meets,  it  is  because  he  believes  they  do  not 
possess  the  qualities  of  his  own  Carlo.  They  do  not  fit 
into  his  mental  world  as  well,  they  are  not  equally  a 
reflex  of  himself.  Every  boy  if  left  to  follow  his 
natural  tendencies  must  believe  that  his  dog's  thoughts 
and  feelings  are  the  counterpart  of  his  own.  Were  it 
otherwise,  why  should  he  talk  to  his  dog,  play  with 
him,  impute  motives  to  him,  blame  or  praise  him,  etc.  ? 

The  change  of  view  so  general  among  civilised  people 
calls  for  an  explanation  :  and  here  we  must  distinguish 
between  the  clearly  defined  belief  of  the  philosopher 
and  the  loose  views — probably  little  more  than  pre- 
judices— of  the  vast  proportion  of  people. 

The  creed  of  the  many  in  Europe  and  America  as 
regards  the  relations  of  man  to  the  world  by  which  he 
is  surrounded  is  in  no  small  measure  shaped  by  religious 
teachers.  The  result  of  this  has  been  that  man  has 
been  placed  on  a  pedestal — raised  high  above  all  other 
creatures — and  that  is  quite  right  too,  but  with  this 
there  has  been  interwoven  the  idea  of  the  great  in- 
feriority of  the  brutes — which  is  again  correct — but 
then  there  were  associated  with  these  views  others 
which,  in  my  opinion,  have  served  to  divorce  man's 
sympathies  from  his  fellows  lower  in  the  scale,  and  to 
lead  him  to  view  them  in  a  distorted  fashion.  In 
attempting  to  glorify  man,  many  well-meaning  teachers 
have  thought  that  they  must  depreciate  his  fellows,  even 
to  the  point  of  denying  to  the  lower  animals  any 
intellectual  life  proper  at  all — all  was  to  be  explained 
by  "  blind  instinct " ;  so  that  by  the  time  Tom  Jones 
became  a  mature  man  he  was  unwilling  to  believe  that 
his  dog  thought  and  felt  as  he  did,  and  especially  was 
he  disinclined  to  set  forth  any  such  creed  in  words,  and 
by  no  means  would  he  have  dared  to  do  so  before  his 
teachers,  lest  he  should  seem  to  be  thereby  bringing 


4  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

himself  into  comparison  with  a  mere  dog.  "  Is  thy 
servant  a  dog,  that  he  should  do  this  thing  ? " 

But  Nature  is  often  wiser  than  her  expounders,  and 
I  venture  to  assert  that  it  is,  in  spite  of  the  indignant 
protest  of  some  people,  because  we  are  in  not  a  little  so 
like  dogs  that  a  large  part  of  our  life  is  what  it  is,  and 
I  hope  before  I  finish  this  lecture  to  be  able  to  convince 
you,  or,  at  all  events,  to  indicate  the  methods  by  which 
you  may  convince  yourselves,  that  Tom  Jones  was  quite 
correct  when  he  believed  that  his  dog's  way  of  thinking, 
feeling,  acting,  and  being  acted  upon,  are  very  much  like 
his  own. 

We  all  find  some  people  hard  to  understand,  and  in 
proportion  as  that  is  the  case  are  such  persons  estranged 
from  us,  and  this  is  inevitable  for  the  reasons  that  I  am 
trying  to  set  forth,  viz. :  that  community  of  thought  and 
feeling  is  essential  to  beget  sympathy,  interest,  etc.,  and 
when  they  exist,  and  in  proportion  often  as  they  are 
found,  do  they  bind  people  together.  You  see  these 
principles  ilustrated  in  every  school.  John  takes  to 
James  because,  perhaps,  they  were  at  some  other  school 
together,  and  found  they  had  common  views  and  in- 
terests, and  John  finds  it  hard  to  get  into  sympathy  with 
Harry,  because  they  seem  to  have  so  little  in  common. 
John  likes  cricket  and  Harry  lacrosse;  John  prefers  to  go 
a-fishing,  and  Harry  to  race  across  country ;  John  is  fond 
of  quiet  fun,  and  Harry  of  the  boisterous,  rollicking  sort 
of  amusement,  and  so  one  might  proceed  to  illustrate  at 
great  length.  Now  and  then,  however,  we  meet  a  person 
who  seems  with  extraordinary  ease  to  be  able  to  enter 
into  the  frame  of  mind  and  feeling  of  a  large  number  of 
persons.  Such  people  have,  we  say,  wide  sympathies, 
and  when  rendered  intelligent  by  education  they  take 
broad  views  of  things,  and  if  possessed  of  vigorous  in- 
tellect and  strong  will,  they  are  likely  to  become  leaders 
in  the  community.  Possibly  they  may  become  dis- 


ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE,  AND   HOW  TO   STUDY  IT         5 

tinguished  in  literature  or  art,  because  of  that  power  they 
have  of  feeling  themselves  into  many  situations  of 
interest  to  their  fellow-men.  Now  I  take  it  that 
Shakespeare  was  a  man  who  possessed  this  faculty — 
though  in  an  eminent  degree  combined  with  many 
others,  as,  for  example,  power  of  visual  imagination  and 
word-painting.  But  he  might  have  had  the  latter  and  a 
host  of  other  powers  developed  in  the  highest  degree,  and 
yet  not  have  been  a  Shakespeare.  He  could  not  have 
felt  like  all  the  different  characters  which  he  put  into 
even  one  of  his  marvellous  dramas.  In  the  course  of 
one's  limited  experience  he  will  meet  people  who  have 
this  power  to  put  themselves  in  others'  places,  who  are 
by  no  means  Shakespeares,  but  who,  notwithstanding, 
have  in  this  invaluable  endowment  an  affinity  with  the 
great  poet ;  and  you  will  generally  find  that  such  people 
are  kind,  slow  to  condemn,  moderate  in  their  censure 
and  just  in  their  estimates,  all  of  which  is  more  or  less 
dependent  on  their  ability  to  put  themselves  in  the 
place  of  others — many  others  of  different  psychic  make- 
up. Such  are  the  people  too,  who  are  best  adapted  to 
understand  animals,  although  they  may,  or  may  not  be 
able  to  explain  their  mental  qualities  to  others.  There 
is  such  a  thing  as  feeling  one's  way  to  truth  when  hard 
logic  and  cold  philosophy  are  unavailing.  You  will,  of 
course,  not  mistake  my  meaning  here.  I  do  not  advo- 
cate the  substitution  of  sentiment  for  cool,  many-sided 
deliberation,  but  the  putting  one's  self  in  the  place  of 
our  fellow-men  and  the  lower  animals,  and  thus  attempt- 
ing to  understand  them.  Indeed  I  would  go  so  far  as 
to  say  that  this  is  the  only  way  to  make  any  real  pro- 
gress ;  all  other  methods  must  be  aids  to  this  final 
attitude  of  the  mind. 

In  the  understanding  of  the  lower  animals  we  must 
each  become  as  a  little  child,  and  I  know  of  nothing  in 
which  this  is  more  literally  true  than  in  the  study  of 


0  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

comparative  psychology — the  psychic  nature  of  animals 
lower  than  man. 

To  illustrate  my  position  further :  If  you  could  have 
traced  from  early  infancy  up  to  the  present  time  that 
one  of  your  school-mates  with  whom  you  are  most 
intimately  acquainted  —  noting  carefully  every  ten- 
dency, every  important  change  in  his  circumstances  and 
in  his  development,  would  you  not  be  in  a  vastly  better 
position  to  understand  him  than  you  can  be  at  present  ? 
Perhaps  you  sometimes  feel  that  you  are  incorrectly 
judged  by  others,  and  that  if  they  only  knew  your  past 
they  would  think  differently.  Indeed,  what  human 
being  would  not  stand  before  us  in  a  different  light  if 
we  knew  his  whole  history — and  this  resolves  itself  into 
his  mental  history  finally.  And  then  how  incomplete  is 
this  until  we  go  back  beyond  the  individual,  and  look 
into  the  history  and  qualities  of  his  ancestors,  for  after 
all,  we  are  very  much  what  our  ancestors  have  made  us ; 
in  other  words,  past  history  is  determining  in  no  small 
degree  present  events — the  thoughts  and  feelings  of  our 
ancestors  had,  to  say  the  least,  no  small  share  in  mould- 
ing our  own  mental  life.  If  one  observes  closely  he  will 
find  that  the  resemblance  to  parents  is  just  as  close 
mentally  as  physically.  I  must  not,  however,  dwell 
now  on  a  subject  so  large  and  so  important  as  heredity. 

But  if  it  is  essential  that  we  know  the  history  of  an 
individual  human  being  to  really  understand  him,  it  is 
almost,  if  not  quite  as  important  in  the  case  of  the  dog 
or  other  of  our  dumb  animals.  Most  of  the  dogs  now 
in  my  own  kennel  were  born  and  raised  therein.  Did 
time  permit,  I  could  interest  you,  I  think,  by  showing 
how  certain  traits  of  these  animals,  which  contribute  to 
give  them  their  individuality,  are  to  be  accounted  for 
either  by  incidents  in  their  history  or  by  peculiarities 
which  showed  themselves  soon  after  birth,  and  which 
were  in  all  probability  inborn.  To  illustrate  by  a 


ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE,  AND   HOW  TO   STUDY  IT         7 

single  case.  A  collie  of  mine  is  very  shy,  so  much  so  that 
an  observer  recently  remarked  that  he  seemed  to  act  as  if 
he  were  afraid  of  being  beaten.  As  a  matter  of  fact  that 
dog  has  always  been  treated  with  the  greatest  consider- 
ation in  view  of  his  infirmity.  He  has  improved  con- 
siderably, and  the  causes  of  this  improvement  in  his 
case  I  well  understand.  For  the  primary  cause  of  the 
shyness  in  this  case  one  must  make  a  study  of  his 
ancestors. 

Not  only  is  it  necessary  in  order  to  understand  the 
individual  dog  to.  begin  with  him  at  his  birth  and  to 
follow  his  history  throughout,  but  such  a  course  is 
essential  for  the  comprehension  of  the  nature  of  dogs  in 
general,  and,  personally,  I  am  deeply  convinced  of  the 
importance  of  such  investigations,  after  having  been 
engaged  in  them  for  some  years. 

When  such  studies  are  carried  out  on  representatives 
of  different  groups  of  animals,  and  on  different  breeds 
or  individuals,  one's  conceptions  of  the  true  nature  of 
animal  intelligence — or,  to  use  a  more  comprehensive 
term,  the  psychic  life  of  animals — is  vastly  widened  and 
altogether  more  correct  in  every  respect. 

In  studying  together,  for  example,  a  litter  of  puppies 
and  a  litter  of  kittens,  the  lines  of  development  are 
found  to  be  almost  parallel  for  a  time,  then  to  diverge 
more  and  more.  The  same  applies  to  the  individuals 
of  the  litter,  even  though  the  circumstances  under 
which  they  are  reared  are  the  same. 

By  this  method  of  comparative  study,  questions  as  to 
what  is  common  to  the  race  and  to  different  races 
closely  allied,  the  relative  strength  of  the  individuality 
of  members  of  the  same  litter  or  family,  the  influence 
of  the  surroundings,  including  in  this  all  that  we  mean 
by  education,  and  a  whole  host  of  other  problems  arise, 
and  are  to  some  extent  solved.  By  varying  the  con- 
ditions under  which  the  different  members  of  a  litter 


8  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

are  reared,  we  may  gauge  the  effect  of  the  influence  of 
the  environment  on  the  members  of  the  little  animal 
community.  There  are  few  more  interesting  problems 
than  the  relative  power  of  animal  tendency  and  of 
environment.  The  question  as  to  what  John  Brown 
may  become  as  the  result  of  education,  knowing  the 
nature,  and  to  some  extent  the  strength  of  the  qualities 
that  were  born  in  him,  is  of  vital  moment.  But  such  a 
problem  can  be  far  more  readily  worked  out  for  a  dog 
than  for  a  human  being,  because  the  nature  of  the  dog 
and  of  its  whole  environment  is  simpler.  Of  late  years 
much  attention  has  been  given  to  the  study  of  the 
development  of  the  infant  from  birth  onward,  and  few 
psychologists  would  now  doubt  that  the  science  of  the 
mind  has  been  put  upon  a  sounder  basis  in  consequence. 

It  must  be  apparent  that  such  investigations  are  of 
the  highest  importance  to  all  those  interested  in  educa- 
tion. If  we  are  ever  to  arrive  at  scientific,  and  therefore 
sound  methods  of  education,  it  must  be  by  a  study  of 
the  true  nature  of  the  mind  of  man,  and  surely  this  will 
be  advanced  by  a  careful  investigation  of  the  psychic  life 
of  simpler  natures,  that  is  to  say,  of  the  lower  animals. 
Of  course  the  higher  in  the  scale  the  animal  studied,  the 
nearer  we  are  approaching  on  the  whole  to  man.  I  say 
upon  the  whole,  for  it  does  not  follow  that  in  all  respects 
the  monkey,  for  example,  a  creature  of  superior  intelli- 
gence to  the  dog,  is  more  like  man.  In  docility, 
some  dogs  at  all  events,  are  far  in  advance  of  monkeys, 
and  in  this  respect  nearer  to  man.  A  monkey  is  often 
a  most  perverse  creature,  even  when  plainly  possessed 
of  considerable  intelligence.  Nevertheless,  there  is  no 
denying  that  a  large  ape  approaches  the  psychic  status  of 
man  more  nearly  than  the  most  intelligent  dog. 

There  are  comparatively  few  people  of  intelligence  in 
these  days  who  would  explain  everything  in  the  mental 
life  of  animals  by  instinct.  But  among  those  who 


ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE,  AND  HOW  TO   STUDY  IT         9 

make  a  special  study  of  mind — the  psychologists — 
and  perhaps  the  biologists  might  be  added,  there  is 
considerable  diversity  of  opinion  as  to  the  exact  nature 
of  animal  intelligence.  One  very  distinguished  writer 
would  deny  the  power  of  thought  proper  to  any  creature 
that  did  not  use  language — articulate  words.  He 
would  even  go  so  far  as  to  affirm  that  man  himself  can 
only  think  in  words.  But  plainly  his  definition  of 
"  thinking "  must  be  very  restricted ;  it  must  be  con- 
fined to  a  very  few  mental  processes,  and  leave  out  a 
vast  amount  of  what  enters  into  the  daily  mental  being 
of  every  man.  There  are  others  that  would  not  go 
so  far  as  this  writer,  who,  nevertheless,  deny  to  animals 
the  power  to  perceive  relations  and  to  reason.  When 
a  dog  appears  to  act  as  if  he  had  reasoned,  those  who 
hold  such  views  would  explain  by  admitting  that  the 
animal  had  profited  by  experience  ;  they  would  concede 
that  he  was  intelligent,  but  claim  that  his  apparently 
rational  action  was  merely  the  outcome  of  mental 
association,  or  a  use  of  "  sense-experience."  When,  for 
example,  a  dog  or  a  cat  opens  a  door  by  manipulating 
the  latch,  writers  of  this  school  deny  reasoning  or  any 
analogous  processes,  but  explain  the  action  by  utilisa- 
tion of  sense-experience  under  the  law  of  association. 
The  dog  somehow  on  one  occasion,  more  or  less  accident- 
ally, opened  the  door  by  using  his  paws  or  teeth  on  the 
latch,  and  this  at  once  established  an  association  in 
sense-experience ;  hence  any  future  repetitions  have 
nothing  to  do  with  any  process  of  reasoning  to  the 
effect  that  if  the  paw  be  used  on  the  latch  the  door 
will  open.  On  the  contrary,  such  writers  deny  the 
power  to  the  animal  to  perceive  any  such  relations. 

This  theory  reduces  the  mental  life  of  the  animal 
very  considerably,  and  restricts  the  dog's  thoughts 
within  a  narrow  compass.  But  is  there  not  a  danger 
of  cutting  down  the  possibilities  of  animal  intelligence 


10  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

too  much,  and  of  assuming  that  in  the  mental  life  of 
the  great  mass  of  mankind  there  enter  more  of 
those  higher  intellectual  processes  (conceivable  and 
possible  at  times)  than  there  really  are  even  among 
civilised  men,  not  to  mention  the  savage  at  all  ?  We 
hardly  realise,  I  fear,  in  how  narrow  a  groove  many 
minds  move  for  the  greater  part  of  the  waking  period 
of  every  day ;  and  this  will  hold,  whether  we  take  the 
case  of  those  whose  lives  are  one  monotonous  grind,  or 
those  who  limit  their  thinking  by  devotion  to  some 
one  simple  but  absorbing  pursuit. 

Let  me  illustrate  by  the  case  of  a  student  who  is 
passionately  devoted  to  cycling.  I  know  of  one  such 
case.  His  father  is  a  professor,  and  in  speaking  of  his 
son's  absorption  in  this  subject  to  the  neglect  of  his 
studies,  he  expressed  himself  somewhat  thus  :  "  I  would 
not  mind  if  my  son  spent  a  couple  of  hours  a  day  on 
the  bicycle,  and  would  forget  it  for  the  rest  of  the  time ; 
but  wherever  he  is,  he  seems  to  think  of  almost  nothing 
else,  hence  he  cannot  study  successfully."  Probably 
you  can  call  up  pretty  well  the  condition  of  the  mind 
of  this  youth.  He  sees  bicycles,  he  feels  bicycles,  he 
beholds  race-tracks  and  crowds,  he  hears  applause,  he 
receives  prizes  in  imagination,  etc.,  etc.,  and  this  over 
and  over  again  with  little  variation.  You  might  con- 
struct a  diagram  giving  a  representation  of  the  probable 
thought  relations  in  his  case,  seeing  he  lives  in  a 
realm  of  "  sense-experience,"  one  in  which  the  percep- 
tion of  relations  only  occasionally  enters,  if  we  are  by 
this  to  mean  such  perception  as  is  impossible  to  the 
dog. 

Indeed,  how  much  is  there  in  such  mental  states 
that  is  impossible  to  the  dog  ?  If  for  cycling  we  sub- 
stitute hunting,  the  case  will  be  clearer.  Do  you  think 
that  the  pictures  of  the  hunting-field  on  which  the  man 
feasts,  differ  much  from  those  the  dog  calls'  up  ? 


ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE,  AND   HOW  TO   STUDY  IT      11 

It  is  quite  true  that  the  man  can  think  otherwise 
about  his  hunting,  cycling,  etc.  He  can  discuss  with 
his  fellows  the  causes  of  successes  and  failures ;  he  can 
even  write  a  treatise  on  hunting.  But  when  the  hunter 
thinks  matters  over  in  his  own  mind  after  a  day's 
sport — when  he  goes  so  far  as  to  seek  for  explanations, 
when  he  must  perceive  relations,  do  you  conceive  that 
his  state  of  mind  is  absolutely  impossible  to  the  dog — 
that  is,  most  of  it  ?  The  case  for  the  ape  is  stronger 
still,  when  we  consider  the  wonderful  resource  he  some- 
times shows  in  protecting  his  offspring,  in  co-operative 
defence,  etc. 

Some  writers,  who  assume  a  very  conservative 
position  in  regard  to  animal  intelligence,  lay  down  the 
rule  that  we  must  in  no  case  interpret  an  action  as  the 
outcome  of  the  exercise  of  a  higher  faculty,  if  it  can  be 
interpreted  as  the  outcome  of  the  exercise  of  one  which 
stands  lower  in  the  psychological  scale.  Hence  they 
think  that  many  of  the  actions  of  such  animals  as  dogs, 
cats,  etc.,  which  some  would  attribute  to  reasoning  or 
an  analogous  psychic  process  should  be  explained  in 
some  simpler  way.  But  why  should  we  bind  ourselves 
by  a  hard  and  fast  rule  like  this  one  ?  Is  it  not  the 
truth  at  which  we  wish  to  get  ?  For  myself,  I  am  be- 
coming more  and  more  sceptical  as  to  the  validity  of 
simple  explanations  for  the  manifestation  of  animal  life 
whether  physical  or  psychical.  It  is  true  the  whole 
matter  is  made  easier  for  the  student,  in  that  he  can 
the  more  readily  grasp  and  remember  the  opinions  of 
others,  processes  which  take  up  a  large  part  of  his  time. 
If  we  analyse  our  own  actions,  especially  the  motives 
for  them,  with  special  care,  how  often  do  we  realise  that 
our  fellow-creatures  have  judged  us  hastily  and  im- 
perfectly. That  our  motives  for  actions  are  often  found 
to  be  far  more  complex  than  even  we  ourselves 
supposed  at  first,  is  a  view  of  the  case  that  was  pre- 


12  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

seiited  to  me  when  a  youth  by  a  very  profound  and 
much-esteemed  school-teacher  of  mine,  who  was  good 
enough  to  give  me  occasionally  the  benefit  of  his  own 
thinkings,  and  the  more  I  examine  myself,  and  look 
into  the  psychic  life  of  others,  the  more  do  I  feel  the 
force  and  justness  of  my  teacher's  view. 

Are  we  not  in  like  manner  too  ready  to  adopt  simple 
— unduly  simple — explanations  of  the  actions  of  the 
animals  by  which  we  are  surrounded  ?  You  will,  of 
course,  not  suppose  that  I  would  claim  that  the  motives 
— using  that  term  in  the  widest  sense — which  actuate 
them  are  of  equal  complexity  with  those  that  determine 
the  actions  of  men  in  many  cases ;  but  in  all  discussions 
on  animal  intelligence,  and  the  entire  psychic  life  of 
creatures  that  are,  on  the  whole,  lower  in  the  scale  than 
ourselves,  we  must  be  careful  to  distinguish  difference 
in  quality  from  difference  in  degree.  And  in  the  in- 
vestigation of  so  important  a  distinction  it  seems  to  me 
of  the  greatest  moment  to  compare  the  human  being 
at  various  stages  of  his  development  with  the  lower 
animals  in  a  corresponding  way  hence,  the,  to  my  mind, 
absolute  necessity  of  investigation  of  the  psychic 
development  of  both  the  lower  animals  and  of  man.  A 
dog  at  different  periods  of  his  existence  stands,  as  it 
were,  on  different  psychic  planes.  He  leaves  some 
features  of  his  early  life  behind  him  for  good — not 
many,  however,  while  he  adds  and  adds  new  develop- 
ments which,  in  different  dogs,  vary  with  their  special 
experience,  but  not  enough  to  obliterate  the  general 
characteristics  of  the  canine  mind.  Just  the  same  may 
be  said  of  the  human  intellect,  and  there  are  few  more 
suggestive  or  fruitful  studies  for  those  who  have  an 
interest  in  such  investigation  than  the  comparison  of 
the  child  and  the  dog  at  their  different  epochs  of 
development.  Of  course,  the  parallelism  is  clearer 
during  the  earlier  epochs,  and  the  dog  runs  through  the 


ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE,  AND  HOW  TO   STUDY  IT      13 

main  stages  of  his  psychic  life  very  much  more  rapidly 
than  the  child ;  but  apart  from  the  use  of  language  and 
the  special  peculiarities  of  the  psychic  activity  dependent 
on  this,  there  is  a  closer  resemblance — at  all  events,  if 
we  restrict  our  comparisons  to  unlettered,  and  especially 
uncivilized  men — than  most  persons  would  suspect,  or, 
owing  to  prejudices,  would  be  inclined  to  admit.  Nor 
would  I  confine  this  statement  to  the  dog,  for  a  study 
of  a  kitten  for  135  days,  from  birth  onwards,  was  a 
revelation  to  myself,  though  I  had  been  a  steady  ob- 
server of  animals  for  a  long  period  of  years.  The 
amazing  persistence  and  intellectual  resource  shown  by 
this  kitten  were  such  as  to  remind  me  of  nothing  more 
than  the  conduct  of  a  child  of  unusual  determination 
and  intelligence — in  fact,  just  the  sort  of  child  that  I 
should  expect  to  succeed  in  the  world,  no  matter  what 
the  obstacles  in  its  path. 

Nearly  ten  years  ago,  in  a  paper  published  in  the 
Popular  Science  Monthly*  I  made  the  statement  that 
"  Many  of  the  performances  of  the  lower  animals,  if 
accomplished  by  men,  would  be  regarded  as  indications 
of  the  possession  of  marvellous  genius,"  and  I  see  no 
reason  now  to  change  that  opinion. 

That  man  can  lay  out  the  line  of  a  railroad  through 
the  trackless  forest,  over  lofty  mountains  and  across 
deep  valleys,  is  indeed  evidence  of  wonderful  mental 
achievement.  But  if  the  surveyor  could  dispense  with 
all  his  instruments  and  mathematical  calculations,  and 
were  in  possession  of  some  mental  endowment  by 
which  he  could  straightway  indicate  the  correct  path, 
would  his  performance  not  be  immeasurably  more 
wonderful  ?  And  would  we  attempt  to  belittle  it  by 
assuming  that  it  did  not  involve  reasoning  and  the  use 
of  syllogisms.  If  genius  has  any  one  quality  about 

*  March  1887. 


14  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

which  men  are  agreed,  it  is  that  its  performances  are 
inexplicable,  either  to  the  individual  himself  or  to 
others,  in  at  all  events,  the  most  remarkable  cases. 
Take  as  instances  in  very  different  lines  of  thought 
Newton's  perceptions  of  quantity  and  space  relations, 
and  Mozart's  of  tone  relations.  These  perceptions  were 
immediate,  and  surmounted  all  ordinary  rules  of  mental 
movement.  But  when  a  homing  pigeon  covers  500 
miles  in  so  short  a  time  that  the  rate  of  speed  rises  to 
40  or  50  miles  an  hour,  showing  how  straight  is  the 
path  by  which  it  reaches  its  home,  we  are  ready  to  class 
the  performance  as  wonderful  for  a  bird,  but  not  on  a 
par  with  any  feat  of  human  genius.  So  far  as  I  know, 
no  one  has  as  yet  explained  such  a  performance.  I 
have  studied  this  subject,  and  made  some  experi- 
ments with  homing  pigeons,  but  whether  we  explain 
the  matter  as  the  exercise  of  very  accurate  perceptions 
of  landmarks — which  is  not  an  explanation  without 
great  difficulties  when  long  distances  are  involved — or 
whether  we  give  up  the  problem  and  say  we  have  no 
experience  which  enables  us  to  understand  it — the 
result  is  still  marvellous,  and  is  closer  to  the  per- 
formance, of  genius  than  anything  else  to  which  it  can 
be  compared.  It  is  to  be  remembered,  too,  that  we  may 
find  even  in  imbeciles  or  idiots  certain  psychic  capa- 
bilities as,  e.g.  for  music,  developed  to  an  amazing  extent, 
so  that  the  generally  low  intelligence  of  a  pigeon  is  not 
to  be  set  up  as  a  plea  of  belittlement  of  its  homing 
performance. 

Therefore,  while  man  is  a  law  unto  himself,  and  to  a 
certain  extent  a  law  to  all  other  creatures,  while  he 
must  look  within  to  understand  himself  and  use  intro- 
spection in  attempting  to  get  at  the  nature  of  the 
psychic  life  of  the  lower  animals,  he  must  also  recognise 
the  limitations  of  this  final  method,  and  realise  that  he 
may  stumble  on  problems  regarding  both  himself  (in 


ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE,  AND   HOW  TO   STUDY  IT      16 

the  case  of  the  genius)  and  the  lower  animals  which 
are  insusceptible  of  solution. 

I  have  always  thought  that  this  gratuitous  assumption 
of  inferiority  in  all  respects  of  the  lower  animals  was 
an  evidence  not  only  of  man's  unbounded  conceit,  but 
is  further  evidence  that  he  had  not  even  realised  the 
nature  of  the  problems  to  be  solved. 

The  more  I  study  the  subject  myself,  the  more  do  I 
hesitate  to  adopt  outright  the  explanations  already 
given  by  those  who  have  written  on  the  subject. 

I  think  we  have  of  late  made  rapid  progress,  but 
there  is  still  great  need  of  observation  and  experiment 
without  bias.  All  may  gain  in  modesty  and  in 
knowledge  who  will  in  the  right  way  study  animal 
intelligence.  Few  people  have  the  qualifications  of 
long  and  intimate  association  with  animals,  by  habit  of 
personal  introspection,  etc.,  etc.,  to  work  out  the  deeper 
problems,  but  we  may  hope  that  the  number  will 
increase  rapidly  in  the  years  to  come. 

To  sum  up  then,  somewhat  imperfectly,  it  would 
appear  that  all  human  beings,  whether  civilised  or 
savage,  naturally  have  an  interest  in  animals  because, 
consciously  or  unconsciously,  they  assume  that  they 
resemble  themselves  psychically.  Possibly  the  fact 
that  savages  seem  the  better  to  understand  animals  in 
some  respects  is  owing  to  their  being  able  the  more 
readily  to  place  themselves  on  their  psychic  plane. 
Closest  comparative  psychology  cannot  hope  to 
accomplish  much.  He  who  would  understand  animals 
thoroughly  must  live  among  them,  endeavour  to  think 
as  they  think,  and  feel  as  they  feel,  and  this  at  every 
stage  of  their  development.  Observation,  experiment 
and  introspection  are  all  essential  to  the  student  of 
comparative  psychology,  but  we  must  recognise  that 
there  may  be  problems  in  both  human  and  comparative 
psychology  that  so  far,  at  all  events,  as  certain  indi- 


16  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

viduals  are  concerned,  are  possibly  beyond  solution. 
Such  are  probably  few  in  number,  and  under  attack  by 
new  methods  may  be  rendered  still  fewer ;  nevertheless, 
it  is  healthful  for  man  to  say  now  and  then  after  the 
fullest  study — "  I  do  not  know."  There  are  states  of 
our  minds  which  no  doubt  bear  a  closer  approximation 
to  those  of  animals  than  others,  and  these  should  be 
seized  upon  and  analysed,  if  we  would  understand  the 
mental  life  of  animals.  No  small  part  of  our  psychic 
life  differs  from  that  of  animals  rather  in  degree  than 
in  kind.  Nothing  is  to  be  gained  for  any  cause,  how- 
ever, by  overstating  the  case,  and  it  is  a  mistake  to 
claim  that  between  the  highest  men  and  the  most 
intelligent  animals  there  is  not  a  vast  difference,  even 
if  we  do  not  go  so  far  as  to  say  there  is  a  great  gulf 
fixed,  as  some  appear  to  believe.  This  is  another  thing, 
however,  from  assuming  that  the  same  holds  for  the 
most  lowly  developed  men  and  the  most  highly 
developed  animals.  As  to  the  differences  in  the  latter 
case,  there  is  room  for  great  diversity  of  opinion  in  the 
present  state  of  our  knowledge. 

Experiments  with  the  lowest  classes  of  men  and  on 
all  kinds  of  animals  are  urgently  needed. 

In  the  meantime  a  modest,  enquiring,  open  state  of 
mind  is  that  most  becoming  and  helpful. 


COMPAEATIVE    PSYCHOLOGY:    ITS    OBJECTS 
AND    PROBLEMS* 

THE  term  comparative  psychology,  in  its  modern  sense, 
gives  us  the  widest  desirable  scope  as  including  all 
that  pertains  to  the  mind  or  soul  of  the  animal  kingdom. 
It  may  have  been  at  one  time  considered  as  highly  im- 
pertinent to  ask  whether  the  lower  animals  possess 
mind,  and  to  substitute  the  term  soul  would  have  been 
dangerously  suggestive  of  heterodoxy  of  a  type  rapidly 
to  be  extinguished.  However,  few  persons  of  any 
degree  of  culture  will  now  be  found  prepared  to  deny 
that  the  inferior  animals  have  minds.  The  questions 
now  to  be  settled  are :  What  kind  of  minds  ?  In  how 
far  do  they  resemble,  and  in  how  far  differ  from,  our 
own  ?  Few,  it  is  true,  have  considered  that  they  suffi- 
ciently resemble  the  human  mind  to  make  it  worth 
while  to  investigate  the  subject  at  all.  Probably  the 
great  mass  of  persons  have  been  led  to  believe  that 
man  does  and  always  has  occupied  a  distinctive  and 
wholly  isolated  position  in  the  universe  of  life — a  centre 
around  whom  and  for  whom  all  other  forms  exist. 
This  view  seems  to  me  totally  unwarranted  by  the  state 
of  our  scientific  knowledge  at  the  present  day.  Further, 
it  is  a  view  not  only  without  scientific  foundation,  but 
calculated  to  lead  to  pernicious  practical  results. 

By  experiments  on  the  lower  animals,  and  by  this 
means  almost  wholly,  has  the  science  of  physiology 
been  built  up.  We  argue  from  the  case  in  animals  to 
the  case  in  man,  and  consider  the  inferences  thus 
derived  valuable,  even  final — possibly  too  much  so ; 

*  A  Presidential  Address  delivered  before  the  Society  for  the 
Study  of  Comparative  Psychology  in  1887. 

B  " 


18  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

but  we  are  apt  to  ignore  the  psychological  similarity. 
From  experiments  on  the  brains  of  the  lower  animals 
we  argue  as  to  the  nature  of  the  brain  of  man.  Why 
not  pursue  the  comparative  method  for  the  soul  ? 

This  condition  of  things  can  be  traced  to  the  influence 
of  views  still  surviving,  unscientific,  as  we  believe,  as  to 
man's  origin  and  place  in  the  universe.  At  all  events, 
such  views  exist  and  influence  practically  our  treat- 
ment of  the  lower  animals.  Where  man  is  concerned, 
their  rights  are  very  seldom  considered.  The  question 
is  not  raised  as  to  whose  rights  are  paramount,  but  it  is 
tacitly  assumed  that  when  man  is  involved  the  brutes 
have  none.  That  such  views  have  been  up  to  the 
present  time  operative  to  the  neglect,  and  often  the 
positive  annoyance,  if  not  the  actual  persecution  and 
death  of  unoffending  creatures,  will  be  perfectly  plain 
to  any  one  who  will  take  the  pains  to  examine  into 
the  case. 

If  there  is  to  be  order  in  the  universe,  it  must  be 
conceded  that  where  respective  interests  clash  in 
certain  cases,  that  interest  and  that  creature  of  less 
importance  must  give  way  to  the  one  of  greater 
importance ;  but  man  can  never  act  righteously  to  his 
fellow- creatures  lower  in  the  animal  scale  till  he 
recognises  that  he  is  of  them  not  only  in  his  body  but 
in  his  mind ;  in  other  words,  that  they  are  truly 
fellows,  or,  as  some  one  has  expressed  it,  "poor 
relations."  But  let  this  not  be  said  in  any  pitying 
sense,  for  it  can  be  most  clearly  shown  that  in  not  a 
few  respects  not  only  are  these  "  poor  relations  "  equal 
but  superior  to  man. 

Physiologists  have  long  been  familiar  with  the  higher 
development  of  the  senses  in  animals  below  man.  There 
is  not  a  single  sense  that  man  possesses  in  which  he 
is  not  excelled  by  some  one  animal,  often  immeasurably. 

Many  of  the  performances  of  the  lower  animals,  if 


COMPARATIVE  PSYCHOLOGY  19 

accomplished  by  men,  would  be  regarded  as  indications 
of  the  possession  of  marvellous  genius.  In  the  brutes 
they  are  regarded  as  the  outcome  of  "  mere  instinct,"  by 
which  is  meant  an  endowment  acting  blindly  and  in- 
capable either  of  philosophic  explanation  or  of  modi- 
fication. While  the  fact  seems  to  be  that  instincts,  as 
they  exist,  are  the  result  of  inherited  experiences  ac- 
cumulated through  considerable  periods  of  time;  that 
they  may  be  modified,  and  are  constantly  being  modi- 
fied by  new  experiences;  that  they  may  be  lost  or 
replaced ;  and  much  more  that  we  have  still  to  learn, 
many  of  the  instincts  of  animals  are  so  far  removed 
from  any  knowledge  or  faculty  we  possess,  that  they 
are  at  present  inexplicable.  But  man  must  learn  to 
say  "  I  don't  know "  about  a  great  many  things  still, 
instead  of  assuming  the  validity  of  explanations  which 
are  not  true  solutions  at  all,  but  mere  assumptions. 

And  at  this  point  allow  me  to  indicate  a  danger  that 
should  make  us  cautious  and  modest  in  attempting  to 
explain  the  behaviour  of  animals.  We  infer  from  our 
fellowman's  behaviour  similarity  of  motive  and  mental 
processes  to  our  own  under  like  circumstances.  We 
find,  the  more  experience  we  have,  that  we  are  often  at 
fault  as  to  both.  And  when  we  are  more  free  from  the 
thraldom  of  so-called  systems  and  methods  in  educa- 
tion, we  may  learn  that  the  activities  of  the  human 
mind  can  not  be  reduced  in  all  persons  to  precisely  the 
one  plan,  like  so  much  clockwork.  This  may  mar 
somewhat  the  completeness  and  beauty  of  our  philo- 
sophy of  education,  but  it  may  also  in  the  end  conduce 
to  human  progress  by  providing  the  greater  freedom, 
and  end  in  insuring  an  individuality  of  character  which 
seems  to  be  now  rapidly  disappearing.  Now,  if  indi- 
vidual men  so  differ  in  psychic  behaviour,  how  much 
more  is  it  likely  that  still  greater  differences  hold  for 
the  lower  animals !  An  objection  may  be  based,  how- 


20  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

ever,  on  this,  to  the  whole  study  of  comparative  psycho- 
logy. The  objection  holds  to  some  extent  even  for 
human  psychology;  but,  as  we  infer  similarity  of 
behaviour  in  men  to  denote  similarity  of  inner  pro- 
cesses, so  are  we  justified  in  the  same  as  regards  the 
lower  animals,  though  it  must  be  conceded  somewhat 
less  so.  We  must  always  be  prepared  to  admit  that 
there  may  be  psychic  paths  unknown  and  possibly 
unknowable  to  us  in  the  realm  of  their  inner  life.  But 
if  we  regard  man  as  the  outcome  of  development 
through  lower  forms,  according  to  variation  with 
natural  selection — in  a  word,  if  a  man  is  the  final  link 
in  a  long  chain  binding  the  whole  animal  creation 
together,  we  have  the  greater  reason  for  inferring  that 
comparative  psychology  and  human  psychology  have 
common  roots.  We  must,  in  fact,  believe  in  a  mental 
or  psychic  evolution  as  well  as  in  a  physical  (morpho- 
logical) one. 

It  is  not  inconceivable  that  special  faculties  which 
do  not  exist  in  the  lower  animals  have  been  implanted 
in  man ;  but  the  trend  of  investigation  thus  far  goes  to 
show  that  at  least  the  germ  of  every  human  faculty 
does  exist  in  some  species  of  animal.  Nor  does  such  a 
view  at  all  derogate  from  the  dignity  of  superior  man, 
while  it  links  the  animal  creation  together  in  a  way 
that  no  other  can.  It  opens  up  the  subject  for  genuine 
scientific  study ;  it  tends  to  beget  a  respect  for  the 
lower  creation,  which,  while  it  fosters  modesty  in  man, 
also  furnishes  a  foundation  for  broader  sympathy  with 
those  lower  in  the  scale.  The  opposite  view  may  lead 
to  our  pitying  the  brute,  but  can  scarcely  yield  as  good 
moral  fruit.  Let  but  an  individual  man  assume  that, 
by  virtue  of  something  he  possesses,  he  is  radically 
different  from  his  fellows,  and  what  is  the  result? 
Your  genuine  aristocrat  (in  feeling)  is  a  sad  stranger 
to  humanity  in  general. 


COMPAEATIVE  PSYCHOLOGY  21 

But  where  shall  we  draw  the  line  ?    Formerly  the 
line  was  drawn  at  reason.     It  was  said  the  brutes  can 
not   reason.     Only  persons   who    do    not    themselves 
reason  ahout  the  subject  with  the  facts  before  them 
can  any  longer  occupy  such  a  position.     The  evidence 
of    reasoning  power  is   overwhelming   for  the   upper 
ranks  of  animals,  and  yearly  the  downward  limits  are 
being  extended  the  more  the  inferior  tribes  are  studied. 
Perhaps  the  highest  faculty  man  possesses  is  that  by 
which   he  generalises   and   forms   conceptions   of   the 
abstract.     That  animals  have  imagination  or  the  power 
to  frame  mental  pictures  of  absent  objects  the  grief  of 
the  dog  at  the  absence  or  loss  of  his  master  amply 
proves,  as  does  also  the  capacity  of  animals  to  dream. 
If,  as  some  assume,  abstraction  is  a  necessary  part  of 
reasoning,   then  it  must  of  course   be   conceded   that 
animals  have  the  power  of  framing  abstract  concep- 
tions.    There  is  a  certain  amount  of  evidence  that  some 
animals  can  count  within  narrow  limits.     It  is  scarcely 
possible  to  account  for  the  conduct  of  the  horse,  dog, 
elephant,  and  ape,  under  certain  circumstances,  without 
believing  that  they  have  the  power  to  generalise  upon 
details.     Once    concede   the  power  to   form    abstract 
ideas,  and  there  is  then  the  basts  for  any  other  faculty 
man  possesses  that  is  considered  usually  as  peculiarly  his. 
Have  animals  a  moral  nature,  or  are  they  capable  of 
forming  a  conception  of  right  and  wrong  ?     The  answer 
to  this  introduces  the  question  as  to  method  of  com- 
parison.    Should  the  highest  of  the  inferior  animals  be 
compared  with  the  most  civilised  races  of  men,  or  with 
man  in  his  most  degraded  condition  ?     That  neither  of 
these  comparisons  is  just  can  be  shown.     As  capacity^ 
for  education  is  one  of  the  best  evidences  "of  menta. 
ability~m  BotKlmannaiidj^ 


civilisation  is  the  outcomeof  his  own  intellect^  he 
be_cr&ii£ed  with  this  as  evidence  q!  his  s 


22  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

It  is  to  be  remembered,  however,  that  each  marked 
advance  in  progress  has  been  made  by  the  few  great 
intellects  that  have  appeared,  and  only  accepted,  not 
originated,  by  the  many;  that  but  for  permanent 
records  in  language,  much  of  man's  civilisation  would 
have  been  lost  as  rapidly  as  acquired;  that  man's 
civilisation  is  the  growth  of  thousands  of  years, 
beginning  with  a  condition  of  things  scarcely  if  at  all 
higher  than  that  now  known  to  some  tribes  of  animals ; 
that  what  any  child  becomes  is  really  largely  depen- 
dent upon  the  training  it  receives ;  the  child  of  the 
savage,  and  that  of  the  civilised  man,  can  not  be  com- 
pared any  more  than  the  latter  and  the  inferior  animals. 
Now,  the  reverse  of  all  this  holds  for  the  lower  animals. 
So  far  as  any  systematic  training  from  man  is  concerned, 
they  are  very  much  as  they  were  thousands  of  years 
ago.  Before  it  were  possible  absolutely  to  compare  the 
highest  man  and  the  highest  animal,  it  would  be 
necessary  that  for  ages  the  effect  of  culture  should  be 
tried  on  the  lower  animals.  The  astonishing  results 
achieved  in  the  lifetime  of  a  single  animal,  and  the 
results  attained  by  the  creation  of  hereditary  specialists 
as  among  dogs,  put  the  whole  matter  in  a  light  that 
shows  our  usual  comparisons  to  be  somewhat  unfair. 
If  the  highest  among  dogs,  apes,  and  elephants  be 
compared  with  the  lowest  among  savage  tribes,  the 
balance,  whether  mental  or  moral,  will  not  be  very 
largely  in  man's  favour — indeed,  in  many  cases,  the 
reverse. 

We  are  not  contending  for  the  equality  of  man  and 
the  rest  of  the  animal  kingdom ;  even  assuming  that 
the  child  and  the  dog  have  equal  advantages,  the  child 
will  still  be  in  many  respects  superior  to  the  dog ;  but 
we  are  desirous  of  pointing  out  how  much  has  been 
overlooked  in  all  these  comparisons  between  man  and 
the  lower  animals.  It  will  be  noticed,  that  all  those 


COMPARATIVE  PSYCHOLOGY  23 

species  of  animals,  which  have  for  ages  been  in  contact 
with  man,  have  made  great  advances  over  their  wild 
progenitors,  evidencing  a  capacity  for  education — 
mental  and  moral — which  is  one  of  the  best  demon- 
strations of  superiority. 

The  assumption  that  man  is  only  accidentally  the 
superior  of  the  brute  would  but  lead  to  confusion, 
for  it  must  be  admitted  that  there  is  a  scale,  and  that 
man  ranks  first.  We  are  simply  desirous  of  doing  the 
lower  creation  that  justice  which  we  feel  assured  has 
not  yet  been  allowed  them,  and  of  seeing  the  human 
family  interested  in  those  that  we  think  scientific 
investigation  is  proving  constantly  are  much  more 
our  fellow-creatures  than  has  generally  been  supposed. 

If  we  compare  the  intelligence  and  general  rectitude 
of  behaviour  of  our  best  races  of  dogs  with  the  same 
in  any  of  their  wild  carnivorous  allies,  we  are  astonished 
at  the  great  difference  in  favour  of  the  dog.  To  what 
is  this  due  ?  Largely  to  what  he  has  become  by  virtue 
of  association  with  man  for  hundreds  if  not  thousands 
of  years — that  is,  to  education,  after  a  fashion.  Nor 
is  such  influence  confined  to  the  dog.  Any  observing 
person,  of  moderate  experience  in  travel,  can  call  to 
mind  numerous  instances  of  members  of  different 
classes  of  animals  trained  to  the  performance  of  many 
feats  demanding  intelligence.  But  while,  in  an  irregular 
way,  dogs  have  been  trained  to  certain  duties  for  the 
benefit  of  man  for  a  considerable  period,  it  can  not  be 
said  that  any  one  of  the  tribes  of  the  lower  animals 
has  ever  been  subjected  to  any  such  mental  or  moral 
discipline  as  man  receives  and  has  received  for  long 
ages.  We  have  ample  evidence,  in  the  condition  not 
only  of  savage  man,  but  in  the  neglected  classes  of 
large  cities,  as  to  what  man  would  be  without  such 
culture.  Sufficient  has  been  said,  it  is  believed,  to 
show  that  we  are  not  yet  in  possession  of  enough  facts 


24  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

to  enable  us  to  determine  exactly  the  limit  of  mental 
and  moral  capacity  in  the  lower  animals.  As  yet  we 
neither  know  adequately  what  they  are  or  of  what  they 
are  capable.  Both  these  subjects  are  worthy  of  human 
investigation.  Their  elucidation  must  tend  to  give  man 
a  better  knowledge  of  himself,  if  only  by  contrast, 

To  return  to  the  question  of  the  moral  nature  of 
animals.     The  study  of   the   dog  alone,  in  the  light 
of  observations  accumulated  in  the  literature  which  are 
often  true  of  special  individuals  in  a  degree  not  of  the 
average  animal  (a  fact  which  does  not,  however,  at  all 
invalidate  their  force),  or  the  study  of  any  dog  we  may 
ourselves  own,  can  not  but  convince  us  that  a  sense  of 
right  and  wrong  is  possessed  by  that  animal.     It  may 
be  that  the  dog   does  not  rise   to  these  conceptions 
as  understood  by  the  learned  divine  discoursing  from 
the  pulpit ;   but  neither  does  a  large  proportion  of  the 
congregation  when  transacting  the  business  of  the  week. 
It  may  be,  and  perhaps  is,  largely  true  that  the  right 
with  the  dog  means  what  is  in  accord  with  his  master's 
will ;   that  is,  the  dog  may  end  at  the  stage  in  which 
every  child,  even  the  most  highly  endowed,  is  found  at 
some  period   of   his   development.      It  is  a  condition 
unquestionably  in  advance,  by  far,  of  that  of  scores 
of  tribes.      Moreover,  as   in   the   child,  and  the  less 
endowed  morally  of  men,  even  such  ideas  of  the  right 
are  powerfully  operative  in  producing  courses  of  useful 
conduct.     They  lead  to  action  on  the  one  hand,  and  to 
restraint  on  the  other,  instances  of  which,  in  the  case 
of  the  dog,  are  abundant,  and  some  of  them  of  a  most 
touching,  we  might  almost   say  ennobling,  character. 
To  affirm  that  the  idea  of  right  and  wrong  of  the  lower 
animals  does  not  rise  above  the  hope  of  reward  and  the 
fear  of  punishment  is  not  to  keep  to  the  facts,  unless 
we  include  as   the  only  reward,  in  many  cases,  the 
master's   approbation,   and   the   only   punishment    his 


COMPARATIVE  PSYCHOLOGY  25 

displeasure.  When  a  child  arrives  at  such  a  stage  of 
feeling,  most  persons  would  not  be  inclined  to  deny  it 
a  moral  nature  and  a  very  good  one,  too.  We  might 
almost  speak  of  a  dog  having  a  religion,  with  man 
as  his  deity.  But  as  a  whole  host  of  qualities — 
some  of  them  difficult  to  classify  —  go  to  make  up 
the  character  of  the  human  individual  so  developed 
and  balanced  as  to  deserve  the  epithet  "gentleman," 
so  there  are  many  qualities  in  the  best  specimens 
of  the  canine  race  that  we  can  practically  appreciate 
better  than  define. 

In  all  such  discussions  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that 
if  we  adopt  the  theory  of  organic  evolution,  we  are 
almost  bound,  of  necessity,  to  a  belief  in  the  origin 
and  gradual  development  of  mind  from  the  faintest 
glimmerings  of  consciousness,  in  the  simplest  proto- 
plasmic creatures ;  and  that  system  will  be  most 
philosophical  and  complete  which  can  fill  up  the 
gaps  between  the  lowest  manifestation  of  any  quality 
and  the  highest.  Hence,  many  are  inclined  to  believe 
that  the  great  distinction  between  man's  faculties  and 
those  of  animals  lower  in  the  scale  is  difference  in 
degree  and  not  in  kind,  certainly  in  so  far  as  they 
run  parallel.  Such  a  view  does  not  prevent  our 
conceiving  of  additional  forms  of  psychic  activity  not 
represented  in  man  as  the  possession  of  the  brutes. 
That  such  seems  probable  will  appear  when  we  discuss 
some  of  the  problems  still  demanding  solution.  Nor 
does  such  a  view  imply  that  there  may  not  be  avenues 
of  knowledge  of  a  special  kind  open  to  man  which  are 
closed  to  those  lower  in  the  scale,  such  as  a  special 
revelation  from  a  higher  source.  So  far  as  we  see, 
indeed,  there  are  no  theological  difficulties  any  more 
than  with  evolution  as  ordinarily  applied  to  animal  and 
plant  forms. 
•  Man's  present  superiority  over  the  lower  animals  is 


26  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

traceable  in  large  part  to  his  eminently  social  tendencies, 
resulting  in  the  division  of  labour,  with  its  consequent 
development  of  special  aptitudes  and  its  outcome  in  the 
enormous  amount  of  force  which  he  can,  on  occasion, 
bring  to  bear  against  the  various  tendencies  making  for 
his  destruction.  Indeed,  the  isolated  individual  man  is 
scarcely  as  well  prepared  in  the  struggle  for  existence 
as  most  other  animals.  But  the  extent  to  which 
animals  do  continue,  it  may  be  in  pairs  or  in  larger 
numbers,  to  defend  themselves  against  enemies ;  hunt 
down  prey ;  rear  young ;  elude  enemies ;  overcome 
difficulties  in  travel ;  work  in  concert  in  the  preparation 
of  dwellings,  and  in  many  other  instances,  has  been  but 
inadequately  considered.  And  in  many  such  cases  it  is 
quite  impossible  to  explain  these  things  by  that  refuge 
of  the  unthinking  or  prejudiced,  "  instinct."  The  limits 
of  an  address  of  this  kind  do  not,  of  course,  permit  of 
detailed  evidence  being  adduced  for  the  views  main- 
tained. Such  evidence  is,  however,  within  the  observa- 
tion of  all  to  some  extent,  and  is,  so  far  as  the  literature 
is  concerned,  found  in  elaborate  form  in  the  admirable 
writings  of  Komanes  and  Lindsay  more  especially. 
Thus  much  by  way  of  clearing  the  ground,  of  preparing 
the  mind  for  a  careful  and  earnest  study  of  our  fellow- 
creatures  of  the  lower  grades,  without  prejudice,  and 
without  fear  of  any  loss  of  self-respect  by  the  con- 
cessions we  may  be  obliged  to  make. 

As  to  how,  so  far  as  the  study  of  comparative 
psychology  itself  is  concerned,  the  objects  of  this 
society  may  be  best  advanced,  let  me  now  endeavour 
to  indicate  briefly.  A  great  part  of  the  material  avail- 
able is  found  in  literature  of  very  varying  reliability. 
In  many  cases  there  is  so  obvious  a  prejudice  in  favour 
of  the  particular  animals  whose  performances  are 
described,  that  very  large  deductions  must  be  made. 
We  shall  do  well  to  be  more  than  cautious  in  what  we 


COMPARATIVE  PSYCHOLOGY  27 

accept.  At  the  same  time,  much  that  can  not  be  re- 
garded as  wholly  reliable  may  prove  suggestive  and 
serve  as  the  starting-point  of  investigations.  But  there 
is  no  reason  why  many  points  now  bearing  the  character 
of  uncertainty  and  indefiniteness  might  not  be  sub- 
mitted to  the  test  of  experiment.  Doubtless  not  a  few 
supposed  facts  would  vanish  into  thin  air  if  subjected 
to  such  examination.  However,  I  must  at  the  same 
time  state  that  a  careful  perusal  of  the  accounts  of  the 
experiments  of  even  the  most  skilful  investigators  by 
this  method,  with  its  clearly  defined  but  artificially 
arranged  conditions,  has  convinced  me  that  such  do  not 
wholly  meet  the  case.  They  bear  with  them  the  danger 
of  fallacy  against  which  one  must  constantly  be  on  the 
watch.  It  must  always  be  considered  that  the  great 
question  is,  not  how  an  animal's  mind  may  act,  valuable 
as  that  may  be,  but  how  it  normally  does  act ;  that  is  to 
say,  what  are  the  natural  psychic  processes  of  the  class  of 
animals  under  investigation?  The  same  caution,  in 
drawing  conclusions,  must  be  observed  in  the  allied 
science  of  physiology,  one  in  which  the  conditions  can 
be  much  more  accurately  regulated.  Plainly,  it  will  be 
desirable  to  keep  our  facts  very  sharply  apart  from  our 
explanations.  The  science  of  psychology  is  a  very 
youthful  one,  that  of  comparative  psychology  still  more 
so ;  and,  at  the  present  stage  of  the  science,  any  one 
who  contributes  a  single  fact  will  be  a  real  friend  to 
their  progress.  We  must  endeavour  to  secure  a  large 
number  of  correspondents  who  will  furnish  accurate 
accounts  of  phenomena  in  this  realm,  of  which  they 
have  been  themselves  the  observers.  We  must  place 
all  material  coming  at  second-hand  by  itself,  not  as 
worthless,  but  as  calling  for  special  scrutiny.  But  so 
long  as  we  have  facts  only,  we  have  no  science ;  such, 
indeed,  are  as  the  wood  and  stone  for  the  building,  and, 
unless  worked  up  into  scientific  form,  may  prove  an 


28  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

incumbrance.  Let  me,  then,  briefly  indicate  some  of 
the  problems  that  have  seemed  to  myself  and  others  as 
most  urgently  demanding  solution. 

One  of  the  questions  still  far  from  clear  is  that  which 
we  had  under  discussion  last  year,  viz. :  In  how  far  can 
the  lower  animals  understand  man's  various  forms  of 
expression,  especially  his  spoken  words  ?  A  priori,  we 
should  not  expect  that  creatures  unable  to  invent  words 
should  have  the  capacity  to  understand  them  in  the 
sense  in  which  man  himself  does.  I  am  inclined  to 
think  that  more  has  been  claimed  for  the  inferior  races 
of  animals  in  this  direction  than  an  exact  examination 
of  the  subject  will  warrant.  On  the  other  hand,  we 
have  probably  very  much  underrated  their  capacity  to 
comprehend  our  various  forms  of  unspoken  longuage. 
The  subject  calls  for  close  observation.  A  kindred 
problem  is  the  degree  to  which  various  kinds  of  animals 
can  communicate  with  one  another.  This  is  a  much 
more  difficult  subject,  and  it  may  prove  that  the 
creatures  we  despise  as  so  very  much  inferior  may 
have  modes  of  subtle  communication  which  we  are, 
possibly,  incapable  even  of  comprehending. 

The  whole  subject  of  the  senses  of  the  lower  animals 
is  a  field  for  investigation  both  by  the  psychologist  and 
the  physiologist ;  all  the  more  important,  as  it  is 
scarcely  possible  to  understand  one  form  or  degree  of 
sensation  adequately,  except  by  comparison  with  its 
lower  and  higher  forms.  The  field  is  as  yet  but  little 
tilled,  but  enough  has  been  done  to  suggest  this  very 
important  question :  Do  the  senses  of  the  lower  animals 
and  those  of  man  differ  only  in  degree,  or  also  in  kind  ? 
Is  the  sense  of  smell,  e.g.  in  the  dog,  merely  more 
acute,  or  is  it  not  also  characteristically  different  ?  The 
latter  seems  the  more  probable,  when  we  consider  how 
different  the  hearing  of  man  is  in  some  respects  (music) 
from  that  of  other  animals,  even  the  dog. 


COMPARATIVE  PSYCHOLOGY  29 

Among  wholly  unsolved  problems  ranks  the  nature 
of  the  mental  processes  by  which  many  different  tribes 
of  animals  find  their  way  back  to  the  place  from  which 
they  have  been  removed,  when  the  distances  involved 
are  great,  and  often  when  they  have  never  travelled  so 
much  as  once  the  way  by  which  they  return. 

Akin  to  this,  possibly,  though  perhaps  quite  different, 
is  the  question  as  to  the  nature  of  the  faculties  by 
which  animals  are  enabled  to  migrate.  "  How  a  small 
and  tender  bird,  coming  from  Africa  or  Spain,  after 
traversing  the  sea,  finds  the  very  same  hedgerow  in 
the  middle  of  England,  where  it  made  its  nest  last 
season,  is  truly  marvellous  "  (Darwin).  We  are  much 
in  need  of  more  facts  in  regard  to  the  migrations  of 
animals;  and  it  is  hoped  that  the  systematic  work 
recently  inaugurated  by  the  American  Ornithological 
Association  may  lead  to  useful  results  in  this  field. 
With  regard  to  the  so-called  "  homing  instinct,"  it  has 
been  noticed  that  savage  or  semi-savage  man  possesses 
a  power  of  finding  his  way  in  the  trackless  forest  by 
more  accurate  observation  than  that  of  which  the 
civilised  man  seems  capable,  While  this  throws  light 
upon  the  case  of  the  lower  animals,  it  does  but  very 
inadequately  explain  it.  It  may  turn  out  that  both  of 
these  puzzles  are  susceptible  of  simple  explanation ; 
but  at  present  they  strike  me  as  rather  belonging  to 
that  class  of  psychic  phenomena,  the  meaning  of  which 
can  be  but  inadequately  understood  by  man,  owing  to 
his  not  possessing  the  requisite  faculties  or  those 
faculties  in  sufficiently  powerful  or  acute  development. 
The  performances  of  a  Shakespeare  and  Scott  in  litera- 
ture, or  a  Beethoven  in  music,  to  the  mass  of  men, 
must  be  but  imperfectly  understood  in  any  proper 
sense  of  realisation.  Probably  these  sons  of  genius 
could  have  given  little  account  of  the  "  manner  of  it " 
themselves.  We  might  hesitate  to  call  such  faculties 


30  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

as  the  above  in  the  lower  animals  genius,  or  to  acknow- 
ledge any  kinship ;  but  genius  among  men  is  often  as 
limited  and  as  disassociated  with  general  mental  power 
as  are  certain  marvellous  faculties  in  the  lower  animals. 
It  may  be  that  migration  is  accomplished  by  means  of 
some  forms  of  acute  sensation,  according  to  which  the 
animal  acts  more  or  less  blindly.  Plainly,  no  mere 
restless  impulse  can  account  for  the  performance, 
though  it  may  initiate  it.  These  and  many  other 
problems  are  before  us;  and,  like  most  recondite 
problems,  they  will  require  the  labours  of  many,  each 
bringing  his  little  for  their  solution.  But  is  it  not 
worth  while  ?  Man  can  not  live  by  bread  alone.  We 
hunger  for  completeness  in  our  knowledge  and  harmony 
in  our  philosophy.  But,  apart  from  this  philosophical 
satisfaction,  it  cannot  but  prove  for  the  interests  both 
of  man  and  the  lower  animals  that  the  latter  should  be 
better  understood. 

Belonging,  as  most  of  you  do,  to  the  veterinary 
profession,  or,  as  I  should  prefer  to  call  it,  the  pro- 
fession of  comparative  medicine,  either  as  students  or 
as  practitioners  and  teachers,  the  more  you  comprehend 
the  mental  workings  and  modes  of  expression  of  your 
patients,  the  more  successfully  must  you  arrive  at  an 
accurate  knowledge  of  their  symptoms,  and  so  be  the 
better  prepared  to  relieve  the  suffering  among  them, 
and  in  so  doing  also  advance  man's  material  interests. 
To  you,  at  the  present  time,  must  we  especially  look 
for  diffusing  more  enlightened  and  humane  views, 
views  worthy  of  this  renowned  School  of  Comparative 
Medicine,  which  many  of  you  have  come  so  far  to 
attend.  It  will  be  for  you  to  intervene  in  cases  of 
public  panic,  like  that  witnessed  in  connection  with  the 
recent  hydrophobia  scare ;  reassure  the  public  mind, 
and  protect  our  fellow- creatures  of  the  lower  ranks 
from  needless  molestation.  There  is  probably  no  class 


COMPARATIVE   PSYCHOLOGY  31 

of  men  whose  daily  life-work  gives  them  so  large  an 
opportunity  for  at  the  same  time  acquiring  and  diffusing 
truer  views  in  regard  to  the  lower  animals.  Your 
enthusiasm  and  success  during  the  first  year  of  our 
existence  as  a  Society,  have  been  a  matter  of  equal 
surprise  and  delight  to  me,  especially  considering  how 
fully  you  are  occupied  with  the  ordinary  duties  of  your 
profession.  We  hope  to  enlist  the  interest  of  others  and 
bring  them  into  our  ranks ;  to  accumulate  a  library  of 
books  bearing  on  this  subject ;  secure  a  large  number  of 
correspondents  from  widely  separated  parts  of  the 
continent,  and  in  various  other  ways  stimulate  the 
study  which  we  feel  calls  for  and  is  worthy  of  man's 
earnest  attention.* 

I  cannot  close  this  address  without  making  grateful 
reference  on  behalf  of  this  Society  to  the  kind  manner 
in  which,  in  many  ways,  Principal  M'Eachran,  and  the 
Professors  of  the  Veterinary  College,  have  lent  their 
support  to  our  projects. 


COMPAEATIVE  PSYCHOLOGY.! 

IN  entering  upon  the  third  year  of  our  existence  as  a 
Society,  it  has  seemed  to  me  that  it  might  be  encouraging 
to  the  older  members  and  instructive  to  those  who  are 
meeting  with  us  for  the  first  time,  to  review  the  work 
of  the  Society  for  the  past  two  years  ;  to  point  out  what 
we  have  tried  to  accomplish  and  what  has  been  actually 
achieved. 

*  This  young  Society,  so  far  as  known,  the  only  one  in 
America  for  the  study  of  Comparative  Psychology,  is  composed 
at  present  almost  entirely  of  the  students  and  teachers  of  the 
School  of  Comparative  (Veterinary)  Medicine  in  Montreal, 
though  its  membership  is  open  to  all  eligible  persons. 

f  Read  before  the  Association  for  the  Study  of  Comparative 
Psychology  in  connection  with  the  Montreal  Veterinary  College,  in 
1888. 


32  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

Believing  that  men  who  had  chosen  Comparative 
Medicine  as  a  career,  must  have  some  real  liking  for 
those  animals,  at  least,  which  are  classed  as  domestic, 
if  not  for  all  creatures  that  breathe  the  breath  of  life, 
and  feeling  assured  that  a  knowledge  of  the  mental 
constitution  of  animals  must  prove  invaluable  to  the 
veterinary  surgeon  in  the  diagnosis  and  treatment  of 
the  diseases  of  his  speechless  patients,  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  year  1885, 1  called  together  such  of  the  students 
of  the  Montreal  Veterinary  College  as  were  attending 
my  own  classes  in  physiology,  and  suggested  the  desir- 
ability of  forming  some  sort  of  association  for  the  attain- 
ment of  these  objects.  Those  addressed  responded  to 
my  proposals  as  only  young  men  can.  Soon  almost 
every  student  in  the  College  joined  us.  The  Principal 
and  Professors  aided,  both  by  smoothing  the  way  and  by 
active  and  cordial  co-operation.  A  spacious  and  com- 
fortable room  was  kindly  placed  at  our  disposal  in  the 
Veterinary  College  building  in  which  to  hold  our  meet- 
ings. As  the  project  was  tentative,  we  did  not  think  it 
well  to  fetter  ourselves  with  many  rules  or  regulations. 
However,  on  commencing  our  second  year,  we  felt 
warranted  in  giving  our  Association  a  name,  providing 
for  it  a  constitution  and  bye-laws,  and  taking  such  other 
steps  as  tended  to  show  that  organisation  was  warranted 
as  a  natural  result  of  growth  and  development.* 

In  order  to  present  the  history  of  our  Association 
within  a  small  space,  you  will  bear  in  mind  that  the 
accounts  of  papers  read,  and  the  discussions  ensuing, 
must  appear  in  very  condensed  form ;  and  that  the  com- 
ments I  have  now  to  make  on  them  must  be  few,  and 
rather  indicative  of  the  line  of  investigation  we  have 

*  Thus  far  the  Principal  of  the  Veterinary  College,  D.  M'Eachran, 
has  been  the  Honorary  President  ;  T.  Wesley  Mills,  Professor  of 
Physiology,  M'Gill  University,  President;  W.  J.  Torrance,  Record- 
ing Secretary.  The  other  offices  have  been  filled  by  different  members 
of  the  Association,  including  the  Professors  of  the  College. 


COMPARATIVE   PSYCHOLOGY  33 

followed,  and  should  continue  to  pursue,  than  as  state- 
ments of  established  results.  Naturally,  most  of  our 
studies,  though  by  no  means  all,  have  been  of  the  domestic 
animals,  and,  as  was  to  be  expected,  the  dog  is  the 
creature  whose  mental  nature  has  been  most  frequently 
the  subject  of  our  enquiries — and  this  will  likely  be  the 
case  in  the  future,  also,  for  many  reasons ;  or  if  we  can 
establish  some  conclusions  regarding  the  psychic  opera- 
tions and  development  of  any  one  of  the  lower  animals, 
we  then  have  more  certain  ground  for  comparison,  even 
if  we  never  succeed  in  showing  that  we  have  any  war- 
rant for  interpreting  the  mental  operations  of  inferior 
animals  in  terms  of  those  of  man.  If  we  could  establish 
a  relative  scale  of  intelligence  for  animals  below  man, 
much  would  have  been  accomplished.  The  first  com- 
munication laid  before  the  Society  grew  out  of  a  paper 
read  before  the  Veterinary  Association  by  Principal 
M'Eachran.  In  this  communication  the  behaviour  of  a 
dog  that  was  manifestly  possessed  of  unusual  intelli- 
gence was  described  in  detail.  Among  other  evidences 
of  this  were  his  journeys  to  a  baker's  shop  to  purchase 
food  for  himself.  Several  such  cases  are  on  record,  and 
as  I  shall  have  occasion  to  bring  this  matter  before  you 
again  shortly,  it  will  not  be  dwelt  upon  now.  In  all  such 
cases  we  cannot  be  too  cautious  in  the  explanations  we 
adopt.  Mr  Dawes,  at  the  same  meeting,  sketched  the 
history  of  a  Cocker  Spaniel  that,  in  consequence  of  early 
training,  would,  on  request,  fetch  any  one  of  six  different 
articles. 

This  case  led  to  the  important  enquiry  :  In  how  far, 
or  in  what  sense,  do  animals  understand  words  ?  In  the 
course  of  the  discussion  following,  it  was  pointed  out 
that  dogs  would  answer  to  their  names  when  uttered 
by  strangers,  in  opposition  to  the  view  that  the  animal 
was  guided  chiefly,  if  not  solely,  by  the  general  de- 
meanour of  the  person  calling  the  dog,  the  tone  of  voice, 

c 


34  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

etc.  The  fact  that  each  individual  of  a  pack  of  hounds 
will  respond  to  his  own  name  is  also  significant.  The 
observation  that,  as  noticed  by  one  member,  his  dog 
would  answer  sometimes  to  names  very  similar,  as 
"  Dick "  and  "  Vick,"  was  not  without  parallel  in  the 
case  of  men,  and  was  explicable  either  by  imperfect 
hearing  or  by  inattention. 

The  case,  as  instanced  by  a  terrier  that  seemed  to 
hunt  equally  well  for  rats,  whether  "  cows  "  or  "  rats  " 
was  the  inciting  term,  did  not  furnish  a  wholly  valid 
objection  it  was  thought,  for  in  all  such  instances  the 
accompaniments  of  the  utterance  of  the  mere  word  were 
of  more  significance  than  the  word  itself.  I  shall  have 
evidence  to  present  to  you  during  this  year  which  I 
think  will  make  it  clear  that  at  least  many  dogs  really 
do  know  their  names  in  the  same  sense  as  very  young 
children,  if  not  even  in  a  higher  sense. 

Frequently,  during  the  past  two  years,  the  influence 
of  breed,  of  the  individuality  of  the  owner  or  trainer 
of  the  animal,  of  food,  and  general  treatment  has  been 
under  discussion. 

These  questions  are  not  only  of  the  highest  theoretical 
interest,  but  of  the  greatest  practical  importance.  At 
one  of  our  meetings  certain  members  advanced  a  view 
favourable  to  a  course  of  severity  in  dealing  with  certain 
horses,  such,  for  example,  as  the  "  bucking "  ponies  of 
the  prairies.  The  President  believed  that  it  was  of  the 
utmost  importance  that  such  a  view  should  not  be 
entertained  by  veterinary  surgeons,  and  that  efforts 
should  be  made  to  eradicate  it  from  the  public  mind  in 
so  far  as  it  really  exists. 

Most  of  the  difficulty  experienced  in  managing 
animals  arises  from  their  not  understanding  what  is  re- 
quired of  them,  or  from  mental  associations  which  have 
been  established  by  previous  unwise  or  cruel  treatment. 
I  cannot  here  refrain  from  stating  the  opinion  of  an 


COMPARATIVE  PSYCHOLOGY  35 

eminent  horse-trainer  with  whom  I  lately  conversed. 
He  holds  that  every  horse  should  be  broken  and  trained 
by  some  one  more  or  less  of  an  expert ;  that  we  expect 
too  great  a  variety  of  performance  from  the  same  animal. 
Each  is  naturally,  to  a  large  extent,  best  adapted  for 
some  one  kind  of  work — in  a  word,  each  is,  to  a  large 
degree,  fitted  to  be  a  specialist.  But  in  this  case  a  good 
many  drivers  would  require  to  be  "  broken  "  also.  The 
brutes  are  constantly  suffering  from  the  stupidity,  as 
well  as  the  moral  obliquity  of  man,  their  controller,  but 
not  always  and  in  all  respects  their  superior.  These 
remarks  do  not  apply  alone  to  the  horse  or  the  dog.  All 
animals  must  first  learn  that  they  are  to  be  subject  to 
man  when  required ;  but,  as  I  have  always  maintained, 
the  highest  results  are  to  be  secured  only  by  kindness 
and  discretion  combined  with  firmness.  A  little  reflec- 
tion will  show  why  this  must  be  so.  One  does  not 
facilitate  the  working  of  a  steam-engine  by  any  sort  of 
forcible  interference  with  the  parts  of  the  apparatus, 
but  by  supplying  good  fuel  and  duly  oiling  the  machine 
where  friction  is  greatest.  So  it  is  for  man  to  study 
the  mental  machinery,  so  to  speak,  and  provide  those 
conditions  most  favourable  to  harmonious  working ;  in 
a  word,  man  must  adapt  to  nature  and  not  attempt  to 
make  nature  adapt  to  his  views.  The  latter  he  cannot 
do ;  her  plan  was  laid  before  he  appeared  on  the  scene. 
If  an  animal  is  so  stupid  or  so  obstinate  as  not  to  yield 
to  such  treatment,  then  it  should  be  abandoned,  for  it 
will  not  be  worth  any  man's  while  to  injure  his  own 
moral  nature  by  what  is  really  cruel  treatment  for  the 
sake  of  the  value  of  such  an  animal. 

At  another  of  our  meetings  Mr  Miller  referred  to  the 
case  of  a  dog  that  was  very  anxious  to  accompany  his 
master,  resorting  to  the  artifice  of  placing  himself  some 
two  miles  in  advance  on  the  road  usually  selected. 
There  are  many  such  instances,  and  it  seems  impossible 


36  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

to  explain  them,  except  by  the  exercise  of  reasoning 
power  or  some  mental  process  closely  analogous.  But 
it  must  appear  superfluous  to  contend  any  longer  for 
the  possession  of  such  a  faculty  in  the  higher  groups  of 
animals  at  least.  One  of  our  members,  Mr  Metcalf, 
himself  the  owner  of  a  large  number  of  dogs,  referred  to 
the  fact  that  one  of  them  had  a  great  dislike  of  beggars, 
tramps,  and  such  like  persons.  From  what  I  have  read 
of  similar  and  even  more  marked  conduct,  from  much 
that  I  have  seen,  and  especially  in  a  young  dog  I  now 
possess,  I  am  almost  persuaded  that  in  certain  dogs 
such  hostility  is  inborn,  and,  in  certain  cases,  hereditary. 
Mr  Metcalf  thought  that  the  detention,  without  injury, 
of  would-be  thieves,  as  in  a  case  he  reported,  was 
peculiar  to  the  mastiff. 

In  February  1886,  Mr  John  Miller  read  a  paper  on 
the  dog,  with  special  reference  to  the  Scotch  Collie, 
which  brought  out  some  interesting  remarks  from  a 
member  who  had  witnessed  the  training  and  perform- 
ances of  these  animals  in  Scotland.  Everything  went 
to  show  that  the  collie  dog  is  a  specialist  of  marked 
aptitudes,  the  result  of  ages  of  training  and  selected 
breeding,  though  his  general  intelligence  is  also  high. 

At  the  following  meeting  Mr  Ferron  reported  on  the 
intelligence  of  a  certain  bitch  he  had  observed.  The 
animal  imitated  a  cat  in  carrying  kittens  and  in  several 
other  particulars ;  she  was  also  remarkable  in  retentive- 
ness  of  memory,  and  in  other  respects.  This  case  was 
all  the  more  valuable  a  study,  inasmuch  as  the  animal 
had  received  no  training  whatever. 

The  President  instanced  the  case  of  a  brindle  bull- 
dog that  had,  on  several  occasions,  found  his  way  home, 
a  distance  of  twenty-four  miles,  and  in  so  brief  a  time 
as  to  indicate  that  he  must  have  taken  short  cuts. 
Such  cases  suggest  one  of  the  most  interesting  and 
puzzling  enquiries  in  the  whole  realm  of  Comparative 


COMPARATIVE  PSYCHOLOGY  37 

Psychology :  the  nature  of  the  mental  processes  by 
which  animals  make  their  way  back  by  a  different 
route  to  places  from  which  they  have  been  taken.  I 
have  given  the  subject  considerable  attention,  and  I 
hope  before  very  long  to  be  able  to  throw  some  new 
light  on  this  vexed  question.  At  this  meeting,  a  paper 
published  by  Dr  Packard  in  the  American  Naturalist, 
for  September  1885,  on  the  "  Origin  of  the  American 
Varieties  of  the  Dog,"  was  read,  on  account  of  the  great 
interest  of  the  subject.  When  we  consider  how  widely 
the  dog  has  departed  from  all  his  supposed  ancestors 
in  his  physical  traits,  we  are  amazed  at  the  extent  to 
which  lower  minds  can  be  modified — we  might  almost 
say  radically  changed — by  contact  with  the  dominant 
mind  of  man. 

This  being  the  last  meeting  of  the  session,  the  Presi- 
dent proposed  certain  subjects  for  study  during  the 
summer.  These  were  put  in  the  following  form : 

To  what  extent  have  the  lower  animals  imagination  ? 
What  animals  dream  ?  The  persistence  and  modifica- 
tion of  instinct.  Is  there  a  "  homing  instinct "  or  a 
"  sense  of  direction "  peculiar  to  animals  ?  What 
groups  of  animals  understand  mechanical  contrivances, 
and  which  can  use  tools  ?  How  far  do  the  minds  of 
animals  become  modified  by  contact  with  man  ?  Have 
any  animals  a  special  aptitude  or  a  peculiar  faculty  for 
determining  where  water  is  to  be  found  ?  The  special 
senses  of  the  lower  animals  compared  with  those  of 
man ;  feigning,  catalepsy,  etc.,  in  the  lower  animals ;  a 
moral  sense  in  animals  below  man. 

It  is  not  to  be  understood  that  our  attention  was 
devoted  exclusively  to  the  dog  during  our  first  year  of 
existence  as  a  Society,  but  it  has  appeared  to  me  best 
to  give  a  sketch  of  our  investigation  of  each  animal 
separately,  so  I  now  continue  the  account  of  our  study 
of  the  dog  during  last  year.  Before  doing  so,  it  may  be 


38  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

mentioned  that  the  session  was  opened  by  the  election 
of  officers  and  the  delivery  of  an  address  by  the 
President,  in  which  many  of  the  topics  proposed  for 
special  study  at  the  close  of  the  previous  year  were 
reverted  to,  and  the  objects  of  the  Society  indicated. 
As  this  address  has  been  published,*  and  copies  of  it 
are  already  in  the  hands  of  most  of  the  older  members, 
I  shall  not  further  refer  to  it  than  to  say  that  the 
subject  has  attracted  attention  generally,  and  its  treat- 
ment, as  was  expected,  has  received  some  criticism.! 

To  return  to  our  friend  the  dog.  Early  in  the  session, 
Mr  Simpson  made  an  important  communication,  the 
result  of  a  careful  study  of  a  blind  Pomeranian  dog.  He 
had  proved  conclusively  that  this  animal  understood 
his  name,  and  also  many  other  words,  such  as  "  sneeze," 
"  bark,"  etc.  The  dog  had  been  blind  for  two  years,  but 
had  so  made  use  of  his  remaining  senses,  and  his  mental 
faculties  generally,  that  he  seemed,  except  in  special 
cases,  but  little  worse  off  than  before.  He  recollected 
well  the  location  of  stable  objects,  and  was  able  to 
make  his  way  successfully  through  the  business  portion 
of  a  city  of  considerable  size. 

This  paper  led  to  much  interesting  enquiry,  and  light 
was  thrown  on  the  subject  by  comparison  with  blind 
men.  Several  members  referred  to  cases  of  the  latter 
whose  history  was  known  to  them.  The  President 
thought  that  there  was  no  doubt  that  the  results,  both 
in  men  and  the  lower  animals,  were  dependent  not 
only  on  greater  acuteness  of  the  other  senses,  but  on 
the  greater  amount  of  attention  paid  by  the  mind  to  the 
data  furnished  by  the  former.  It  was  to  be  remem- 
bered that  improvement  in  the  senses,  whether  in  the 
blind  or  others,  was  largely  to  be  referred  to  the  brain 

*  "Comparative  Psychology:  Its  Objects  and  Problems,"  Popular 
Science  Monthly,  March  1887. 
f  Science,  vol.  ix.  Nos.  217,  222. 


I  T; 
COMPARATIVE   PSYCHOLOGY  3$ 

itself.  This  was  especially  clear  on  studying  blind 
persons.  The  progress  made  even  in  walking  under 
difficulties  was  owing,  in  the  most  successful  cases,  in 
great  part,  to  superior  brain  development.  The  subject 
is  of  wide  scope  and  of  the  very  highest  interest,  but 
we  cannot  enter  upon  a  further  discussion  of  it  now. 
At  our  January  meeting  Mr  Pease  reported  some  obser- 
vations on  a  black-and-tan  bitch.  He  had  proved  to 
his  entire  satisfaction  that  this  animal  understood  the 
meaning  of  certain  words  perfectly  well,  in  so  far  as 
could  be  judged  by  her  actions.  Thus  she  never  con- 
founded such  words  as  "  breakfast,"  "  dinner,"  "  supper.' 
It  will  be  seen  that  we  have  given  the  question  of  the 
extent  to  which  the  dog  understands  words  a  good  deal 
of  examination.  It  merits  the  closest  study,  for  un- 
questionably the  magnitude  of  the  gap  between  man 
and  the  lower  animals  is  owing  to  the  capacity  of  man 
to  use,  and  his  actual  employment  of,  language.  But  I 
must  repeat  what  I  said  in  my  last  year's  address,  that 
it  is  more  than  likely  that  we  much  under-estimate  the 
capacity  of  animals  to  communicate  with  each  other 
by  a  language  of  their  own. 

Unlike  the  dog,  the  cat  has  received  very  little  atten- 
tion and  consideration  from  man.  There  are  many 
reasons  for  this  neglect,  but  not  least  in  significance  is 
the  fact  that  puss  is  no  flatterer ;  the  dog  adapts  him- 
self to  every  caprice  and  whim  of  his  master,  but  the 
cat  is  always  herself.  To  understand  her  thoroughly, 
to  see  her  at  her  best,  she  must  be  manipulated  as  a 
delicate  piece  of  mechanism,  and  treated  in  the  very 
kindest  fashion.  When  so  dealt  with,  the  cat  proves  to 
be  by  no  means  only  a  comparatively  untamed  em- 
bodiment of  certain  strong  instincts.  I  have  main- 
tained, and  supported  the  opinion  by  some  evidence, 
that  the  intelligence  and  possible  good  qualities  of  the 
cat  have  been  much  under-estimated, 


40  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

The  same  may  be  said  of  another  animal  that  has 
been  not  only  neglected  by  those  interested  in  the  study 
of  animal  intelligence,  but  misrepresented  in  general. 
I  mean  the  pig.  What  would  the  dog  be  to-day  if  he 
had,  for  hundreds  of  years,  been  valued  only  for  his 
flesh,  and  kept  exclusively  to  be  fattened  for  food? 
The  hog  is  charged  with  being  dirty,  stupid,  and  ob- 
stinate. Why  should  an  animal,  overburdened  with  flesh 
and  fat,  and  consequently  a  sufferer  from  the  heat  of 
summer,  be  so  much  blamed  for  betaking  himself  to  a 
pool  even  if  muddy?  Man  is  largely  responsible  for 
enforcing  conditions  involving  filth  on  the  hog.  That 
this  animal  is  not  lacking  in  intelligence  has  been 
shown  by  his  having  been  taught  to  hunt  like  a  dog,* 
and  by  an  interesting  case  reported  to  our  Association 
by  Mr  Frank  Miller.  The  animal  was  of  the  Chester 
White  breed,  had  been  trained  at  the  age  of  four 
months,  knew  his  name,  would  dance  to  music,  go 
seek  when  told,  lie  down,  and  obey  other  commands. 
You  will  at  least  agree  that  the  hog  is  worthy  of 
further  consideration  at  our  hands.  Circumstances  were 
mentioned  by  one  of  our  members  which  pointed  very 
strongly  to  the  possibility  of  hogs  having  hibernating 
capacity.  This  subject  is  of  great  physiological  interest, 
and  not  without  its  bearings  on  Comparative  Psychology; 
any  new  light  on  the  subject,  so  far  as  animals, 
especially,  are  concerned,  would  be  very  welcome. 

We  have  had  a  few  communications  on  the  intelli- 
gence of  our  domestic  grazing  animals.  Mr  Torrance 
had  observed  that  sheep  had  acted,  on  different 
occasions,  as  if  they  were  aware  of  the  approach  of 
storms  still  distant.  Their  behaviour,  in  seeking 
shelter,  had  been  coincident  with  changes  in  the  baro- 
metric pressure. 

*  "Animal  Intelligence,"  by  G.  J.  Romanes,  p.  339. 


COMPARATIVE  PSYCHOLOGY  41 

Numerous  reports  from  the  sites  of  recent  earthquake 
shocks  by  observers  of  unquestionable  reliability  have 
shown  that  many  different  kinds  of  animals  were 
sensible  of  something  abnormal,  which  caused  in  them 
manifestations  of  uneasiness  or  fear,  some  seconds  before 
anything  unusual  was  noticed  by  man.  As  I  hope  to 
show  on  some  other  occasion,  such  indications  of  acute 
sensibility,  on  close  observation,  throw  much  light  on 
certain  vexed  questions  in  the  science  of  Comparative 
Psychology. 

Among  wild  animals  we  have  had  several  short  but 
interesting  communications  on  the  gopher  of  the 
prairies ;  also  a  very  carefully  prepared  paper  from 
Mr  Harris,  giving  the  results  of  his  own  investigations 
of  the  beaver  and  his  work  in  the  Canadian  North- 
West.*  Confirmations  of  these  observations  and  addi- 
tions thereto  were  offered  by  another  member  who  had 
much  experience  of  life  on  the  prairies.  It  becomes 
very  clear  that  the  beaver  is  not  only  an  animal  of 
strongly  pronounced  instincts,  but  of  great  capacity  to 
adapt  itself  to  circumstances  (plasticity  of  instinct,  etc.). 
I  again  raise  the  question  :  What  is  the  mental  differ- 
ence between  the  performances  of  the  beaver  and  those 
of  a  man  with  marked  genius  for  engineering  operations, 
apart  from  all  training  ?  Only  prejudice  can  prevent 
us  seeing  that  this  is  a  case  of  the  highest  suggestive- 
ness,  and  it  is,  to  me,  replete  with  instruction.  The 
time  would  fail  me  to  attempt  to  even  indicate  to  you 
how  far-reaching  is  such  an  enquiry.  I  cannot  help 
thinking  that  man  would  both  understand  himself 
better  and  have  a  truer  insight  into  the  inner  life  of  the 
so-called  inferior  animals  if  he  could  get  rid  of  some 
of  his  conceit,  and  regard  himself  rather  as  of,  than 


*  This  paper  has  since  been  published,  by  request  of  the  editor,  in 
th*  Canadian  Journal  of  Fabrics. 


42  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

apart,  from  the  rest  of  the  animal  creation.  The 
achievements  of  the  nineteenth  century  are  great;  so 
also  is  its  conceit. 

The  study  of  the  apes  and  monkeys,  on  account  of 
undoubted  physical  and  mental  resemblances  to  man, 
is  naturally  of  the  greatest  interest.  Accordingly,  a 
communication  from  Mr  Clement  on  a  monkey  he  had 
kept  under  observation  was  welcomed  by  the  Associa- 
tion. This  creature's  curiosity,  observing  powers, 
retentiveness  of  memory,  and  confidence  in  his  owner, 
in  contrast  with  a  shyness  towards  strangers,  were 
pronounced.  His  power  of  imitation,  it  was  thought, 
had  much  to  do  with  his  mental  progress.  The 
superiority  of  this  monkey,  as  in  other  cases,  was 
evidenced  by  his  capacity  for  education.  As  Mr 
Clement  well  observed,  there  was  much  in  the  crea- 
ture's behaviour  that  suggested  the  child.  The  Presi- 
dent had,  in  the  case  of  this  individual,  verified 
Darwin's  statement  that  monkeys  have  an  instinctive 
fear  of  snakes.  When  this  animal  was  offered  a  dead 
snake  in  a  paper  bag,  he  cautiously  peeped  in  and  then 
ran  away  in  terror,  nor  could  he  be  induced  to  go  near 
the  bag  again.  I  may  mention,  incidentally,  that  there 
is  now,  in  Central  Park  Menagerie,  New  York,  a 
remarkable  chimpanzee,  of  an  intelligent  expression  of 
countenance  so  human-like  as  to  be  positively  startling. 
If  now  he  could  but  stumble  on  speech,  what  then  ? 
It  seems  not  unlikely  that  the  superiority  of  the 
monkey's  brain  over  that  of  other  animals  may  be 
owing  in  part  to  the  use  of  the  fore-limb  as  a  hand. 
It  has  even  been  suggested  that  the  greater  brain- 
weight  of  man,  compared  with  that  of  woman,  may,  in 
part,  be  the  result  of  his  more  pronounced  muscular 
development. 

We  have  endeavoured  to  throw  some  light  upon  the 
question  as  to  whether  any  animals  have  a  special 


COMPARATIVE   PSYCHOLOGY  43 

aptitude  in  finding  water.  There  is  a  certain  amount 
of  evidence  in  the  affirmative  as  regards  frogs,  turtles, 
and  allied  animals.  A  member,  well  acquainted  with 
life  on  the  plains,  referred  to  the  fact  that  thirsty 
travellers  are  accustomed  to  follow  a  "  buffalo  rut "  in 
the  confident  hope  of  finding  water.  We  need  more 
exact  information  on  such  subjects  very  much. 

Turning  now  to  that  most  faithful  servant  of  man, 
the  horse,  we  must  confess  to  having  made  less  progress 
than  in  the  study  of  the  dog  ;  and  I  would  suggest  that 
the  reason  is  partly  to  be  found  in  the  very  fact,  that 
this  animal  is  a  servant,  rather  than  a  companion,  of 
man.  The  whole  nature  of  the  horse  is  restrained  and 
modified  so  that  he  may  be  adapted  to  human  uses,  and 
as  a  result,  we  fail  to  see  him  in  his  true  nature,  as  a 
freely  developing  animal.  The  horse  has  become,  to  a 
large  extent,  a  living  automaton ;  as  such,  he  is  an 
interesting  evidence  of  the  dominance  of  one  in- 
telligence and  will  over  another,  but  the  real  nature 
of  the  animal  is,  in  consequence,  much  obscured.  We 
have  had,  however,  many  interesting  communications 
on  the  horse.  At  an  early  meeting  of  the  Association 
Mr  Dawes  presented  the  formulated  opinions  of  an 
expert  trainer.  Among  the  most  important  of  these 
are  the  following :  Horses  know  their  names ;  they 
recognise  each  other  after  long  separation ;  the  develop- 
ment of  high-speed  trotting  is  largely  dependent  on  the 
intelligence  displayed  in  the  training;  horses  exhibit 
judgment  in  the  choice  of  track  and  in  jumping  hurdles; 
some  horses  neigh  when  the  groom  is  seen  at  the  feed- 
box  or  the  water-tap ;  some  even  attempt  to  turn  the 
tap ;  horses  frequently  endeavour  to  throw  vexatious  or 
unskilful  riders.  I  shall  be  glad  to  communicate  to 
the  Association  the  results  of  an  important  interview  I 
had  during  the  past  summer  with  an  eminently  success- 
ful trainer.  His  experience  confirms  and  amplifies 


44  ANIMAL   INTELLIGENCE 

views   I  have  on  more  than  one  occasion  expressed 
before  you. 

Several  members  stated  that  they  had  noticed  that 
horses  have  a  special  dread  of  bears,  and  could  scent 
them  at  a  great  distance.  Some  horses  were  also  afraid 
of  a  fur  coat.  No  one,  however,  seemed  to  be  able  to 
explain  why  this  fear  should  attach  to  bears  more  than 
to  other  ferocious  animals ;  one  would  expect,  in  fact, 
that  there  would  be  much  more  danger  to  the  horse 
from  wolves  than  bears.  Is  this  the  remnant  of  a 
once  powerful  instinctive  fear  ?  At  a  later  meeting 
Mr  Dawes  continued  the  subject  of  equine  psychology. 
He  explained  that  a  mare  in  his  possession  had  learned 
to  overcome,  in  succession,  different  mechanical  con- 
trivances, such  as  buttons,  fastenings,  etc.,  which  had 
been  placed  on  the  feed-box  to  prevent  its  being  opened. 
Mr  Dawes  also  instanced  the  behaviour  of  one  of  his 
horses,  which  showed  considerable  intelligent  association 
of  ideas.  This  animal  was  accustomed  to  being  driven 
to  the  railroad  station,  and  on  certain  occasions,  on 
hearing  the  whistle  of  the  approaching  train,  had 
started  off  on  his  own  account,  and  after  the  train  had 
left  he  had  returned  home.  The  ability  of  horses  to 
remember  incidents,  sometimes  trivial,  after  the  lapse 
of  years,  was  testified  to  by  several  members. 

Mr  Ferron  has  also  favoured  us  with  some  interesting 
facts  in  regard  to  the  intelligence  of  trotting  horses ; 
and  the  Principal  of  the  College  has  pointed  out 
instances  of  equine  sagacity  of  a  very  striking  kind. 
Horses  had  even  come  to  the  College  hospital  for  treat- 
ment of  their  own  accord.  While  all  our  domestic 
animals  amply  repay  good  treatment,  of  none  is  this 
more  true  than  of  the  horse.  To  take  advantage  of 
this  animal's  gentle,  sensitive,  plastic  nature  to  subject 
it  to  abuse,  is  the  part  only  of  a  savage,  and  not  of  a 
civilised  human  being.  It  is  not  to  be  forgotten  that 


COMPARATIVE  PSYCHOLOGY  45 

ill-treatment  of  the  brutes  reacts  on  the  moral  nature 
of  the  man  that  is  guilty  of  it;  in  injuring  them  he 
injures  himself  far  more. 

But  the  time  fails  me.  This  is  necessarily  a  very 
inadequate  account  of  our  work  up  to  the  present — a 
mere  sketch — but  I  hope  it  may  suffice  to  encourage 
old  members  and  to  arouse  the  interest  and  enthusiasm 
of  those  now  entering  to  fill  the  places  of  the  men  who 
have  left  us,  and  whose  efforts  in  this  cause  we  must 
gratefully  remember.  There  is  one  thing  which  cannot 
in  any  way  be  represented  to  others,  and  that  is  the 
delight  we  have  experienced  in  meeting  together  to 
discuss  the  inner  and,  unfortunately  for  us,  so  much 
hidden  life  of  those  beings  that  we  have  learned  to 
regard  with  more  and  more  respect,  and  to  consider 
fellow-creatures.  It  will  take  some  time  to  educate  the 
public  mind  up  to  the  point  of  realising  how  much 
these  animals  are  really  deserving  of  serious,  respectful 
consideration.  To  the  enlightened  veterinary  surgeon 
must  we  especially  look  for  an  improvement  of  the 
condition  of  our  domestic  animals,  and  in  no  way  can 
this  be  accomplished  more  effectually  than  by  learning 
their  true  nature  and  making  that  known.  We  wish 
to  reach  only  the  truth.  No  cause  is  in  the  end 
advanced  by  over-statement  of  the  facts. 

Sensible  rather  of  how  much  is  still  to  be  done,  than 
satisfied  with  our  past  progress,  we  renew  our  enquiries 
in  the  firm  belief  that  an  honest,  humble  search  after 
truth  will  never  be  in  vain. 


PSYCHOLOGY    AND    COMPARATIVE 
PSYCHOLOGY* 

IT  is  now  more  than  ten  years  since  I  suggested  to  a 
few  of  the  students  of  this  Faculty  of  Comparative 
Medicine  that  it  might  be  interesting  and  profitable  to 
band  together  for  the  study  of  the  psychic  nature  of 
animals,  particularly  those  animals  with  which  we  are 
brought  into  daily  contact. 

In  December  1885,  at  a  meeting  called  to  consider 
the  subject,  it  was  unanimously  decided  that  a  Society 
should  be  formed  to  study  Animal  Intelligence  as  best  it 
could.  Practically  all  the  students,  and  those  teachers 
more  immediately  connected  with  the  work  of  this 
Faculty,  joined  the  Association  and  entered  into  the  new 
project  with  enthusiasm.  It  was  early  decided  that 
only  material  obtained  either  at  first  hand,  or  from  the 
most  reliable  sources,  should  be  brought  before  the 
Association,  and  that  principle,  the  wisdom  of  which 
will  not  be  questioned,  has  been  acted  upon  throughout. 

Whatever  the  value  of  the  papers  and  discussions 
which  have  engaged  our  attention,  it  may  be  fairly 
claimed  that  the  facts  upon  which  they  have  been 
based  were  beyond  question.  The  first  essential  in  any 
student  of  nature  is  a  strong  desire  to  know  the  truth, 
and,  therefore,  a  great  respect  for  exact  observation  at 
the  outset.  While  theories  change — and  this  is  inevitable 
owing  to  the  imperfection  of  our  grasp  of  many-sided 
truth — a  fact  is  always  a  fact.  The  patient  collection  of 
facts,  so  well  illustrated  by  the  illustrious  Darwin,  when 


*  An  Address  delivered  to  the  Association  for  the  Study  of  Com- 
parative Psychology  in  Montreal,  1896. 
46 


4 

PSYCHOLOGY  AND  COMPARATIVE  PSYCHOLOGY    47 

theorising  without  very  great  regard  to  them  was  so 
tempting  in  framing  explanations  of  organic  nature,  is  a 
work  that  the  world  long  undervalued,  and  the  import- 
ance of  which  it  is  to  be  feared  all  psychologists  at  the 
present  day  do  not  adequately  appreciate. 

In  this,  at  all  events,  our  unpretentious  Association 
may  claim  to  have  trodden  in  the  safe  path.  At  the  end 
of  our  first  decade  of  existence  it  may  be  profitable  to 
review  what  has  been  accomplished.  It  could  scarcely 
be  expected  that  the  members  of  this  Association,  being 
for  the  most  part  undergraduates,  whose  time  is  largely 
taken  up  with  professional  studies,  should  be  able  to 
make  elaborate  original  researches  worthy  of  publica- 
tion. From  the  first,  however,  our  proceedings  have 
been  given  to  the  public  in  condensed  form  by  the  local 
Press,  and  evidence  has  been  abundant  on  every  hand 
that  one  of  the  results  has  been  an  altered  attitude  of 
mind  on  the  part  of  many  intelligent  persons  in  this  city 
towards  the  animal  world  about  us,  notably  our  domestic 
species.  This  is  not  a  work  to  be  despised,  for  the  wel- 
fare of  our  fellow-creatures  lower  in  the  scale  is  largely 
dependent  on  the  views  we  entertain  of  their  psychic 
nature. 

It  is  surely  not  to  be  supposed  that  such  studies  as 
have  engaged  the  members  of  our  Association  are  with- 
out a  value  of  a  professional  kind ;  for  in  the  handling 
of  sick  animals,  in  diagnosing  their  exact  condition,  in 
appreciating  their  sensations,  and  generally  in  under- 
standing their  entire  nature,  the  man  who  observes  and 
reflects  on  such  things  must  be  more  competent  as  a 
veterinarian,  other  things  being  equal,  and  certainly  a 
more  agreeable  visitor  to  both  patients  and  clients. 

But  it  is  difficult,  in  my  opinion,  to  over-estimate  the 
good  to  the  individual  who,  in  the  right  spirit,  studies 
animals.  A  frame  of  mind  is  established  which,  even 
when  one  exaggerates  animal  intelligence,  is  rarely 


4#  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

practically  harmful  —  often  the  reverse — and  nearly 
always  begets  sympathy  and  modesty. 

Psychology  has  passed  through  great  changes  during 
even  the  last  decade.  Now  almost  every  college  in 
America  of  much  importance  has  its  Chair  of  Psy- 
chology, and  many  colleges  are  provided  with  psycho- 
physical  laboratories.  In  America  alone  there  are  two 
periodicals  devoted  to  this  subject,  and  at  last  peda- 
gogical institutions  are  attempting  to  found  the  training 
for  teachers  on  the  laws  of  the  mind,  i.e.  on  psychology. 
In  fact  no  recent  educational  movement  has  been  more 
widespread  in  its  influence,  or  more  rapid  in  its  develop- 
ment, than  the  modern  psychology. 

The  scope  and  methods  of  the  science  have  also 
changed.  While  none  the  less  introspective,  it  has  be- 
come more  objective.  The  allied  science  of  physiology 
owes  something  to  psychologists,  notably  in  the  direc- 
tion of  a  more  complete  and  accurate  study  of  the  senses, 
and  keen  criticism  of  positions  assumed  by  physiologists 
in  regard  to  the  central  nervous  system. 

The  psychologists  have  borrowed  freely  from  the  realm 
of  mental  and  nervous  disease,  all  of  which  marks  a 
new  departure  from  which  not  only  psychology,  but 
physiology  and  practical  and  scientific  medicine,  must 
benefit. 

It  is  usually  a  hopeful  sign  when  methods  of  exact 
estimation  begin  to  be  applied  to  any  science.  There  has 
been  much  diversity  of  opinion  as  to  the  extent  to  which 
this  can  be  or  has  been  successfully  done  in  psychology. 
In  the  opinion  of  one  of  the  most  accomplished  workers 
in  this  department  of  the  science,  who  occupied  the  Pre- 
sidental  Chair  at  the  last  meeting  of  the  American 
Psychological  Association,  there  can  be  no  doubt  about 
the  value  of  such  methods  and  their  application.  He 
says :  "  I  venture  to  maintain  that  the  introduction  of 
experiment  and  measurement  into  psychology  has  added, 


PSYCHOLOGY  AND  COMPARATIVE  PSYCHOLOGY        49 

directly  and  indirectly,  new  subject-matter  and  methods, 
has  set  a  higher  standard  of  accuracy  and  objectivity, 
has  made  some  part  of  the  subject  an  applied  science 
with  useful  applications,  and  has  enlarged  the  field  and 
improved  the  methods  of  teaching  psychology." 

But  what  shall  we  say  of  the  status  and  prospects  of 
Comparative  Psychology  ?  The  works  of  Eomanes  were 
well  known  prior  to  the  beginning  of  the  last  decade. 
They  may  be  considered  as  marking  about  the  first 
serious  attempts  to  treat  the  subject  of  Comparative 
Psychology  in  a  truly" scientific  spirit,  and  in  a  form  ac- 
cessible to  the  intelligent  portion  of  the  general  public. 
Much  later  appeared  the  books  of  Professor  Lloyd 
Morgan — works  which  possess  the  charm  of  unusual 
clearness.  If  Eomanes  was  open  to  the  charge  of  claim- 
ing too  much  for  animals,  Morgan  is  certainly  cautious 
enough  to  please  the  most  conservative,  unless  it  be 
those  who  deny  true  intelligence  to  animals  entirely. 

It  is  a  hopeful  sign  of  the  times  in  psychology  that 
a  professor  of  philosophy,  Dr  Carl  Groos,  of  Giessen, 
has  found  material  for  a  book  of  considerable  size  on 
the  play  of  animals,  a  subject  which  has  been  treated 
by  him  with  interest,  learning,  and  critical  acumen. 

Animal  intelligence  is  more  and  more  attracting  the 
attention  of  the  professed  psychologist  and  biologist, 
and  that  both  realise  the  difficulties  of  the  subject, 
while  its  importance  is  acknowledged,  is  of  good  omen. 
Comparative  psychology  is  now  beyond  the  stage  of 
neglect  and  contempt,  though  there  are  those  who  seem 
to  think  that  before  we  can  judge  of  the  mental 
processes  of  animals,  much  greater  progress  must  first 
be  made  in  the  study  of  the  human  mind ;  in  other 
words,  they  would  take  their  standards,  their  criteria, 
from  human  psychology.  That  we  must  in  the  end  find 
the  clue  -to  interpretation  from  ourselves  there  is  no 
doubt,  but  is  it  not  the  fact  that  every  complicated 

P 


50  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

subject  has  been  advanced  by  studies  on  a  lower  plane 
and  by  the  process  of  comparison?  Anatomy  and 
mammalian  embryology  would  scarcely  be  worthy  of 
the  name  of  sciences  to-day  but  for  studies  conducted 
on  simpler  forms.  Do  not  psychologists  sometimes 
forget,  as  anatomists  long  did,  that  the  human  is 
scarcely  to  be  comprehended  apart  from  the  study  of 
simpler  creatures  ?  Should  we  not  look  at  psychology 
as  the  naturalist  now  does  at  zoology,  and  endeavour  to 
discover  the  various  grades  in  psychic  processes,  if  such 
there  be,  and  it  is  only,  so  far  as  I  can  see,  by  com- 
parative investigation  that  their  existence  or  non- 
existence  can  be  established. 

To  do  such  work  at  its  best  requires  a  knowledge  of 
both  biology  and  psychology,  and  an  intimate  acquaint- 
ance with  the  ways  of  animals.  Closet  lucubrations 
cannot  be  expected  of  themselves  to  advance  com- 
parative psychology  very  much. 

Might  not  human  psychology  be  made  more  objective 
still,  and  is  not  the  amount  of  wheat  garnered  much 
out  of  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  sheaves  brought  to 
the  thresher  ?  Has  individual  psychology  received  the 
attention  it  deserves  ?  Might  not  the  inductive  method 
be  more  fully  applied  to  psychology  ?  I  have  long  been 
convinced  that  differences  for  races  and  for  individuals 
have  been  insufficiently  recognised  in  physiology,  and 
at  last  there  seems  to  be  a  reaction  against  the  former 
reckless  leaps  from  frog  or  rabbit  to  man. 

The  physiologist  cannot,  however,  afford  to  ignore 
the  frog  or  the  rabbit  even  when  his  goal  is  man ;  nor, 
f  I  may  venture  to  express  an  opinion,  can  the  psy- 
chologist do  so  either  without  some  loss — possibly 
great  loss — to  his  subject. 

I  hope  to  see  published,  in  the  next  few  years, 
detailed  studies  on  many  individual  human  beings  of 
both  sexes,  and  also  on  individual  animals.  We  must 


PSYCHOLOGY  AND   COMPARATIVE   PSYCHOLOGY        51 

have  more  facts  for  our  conclusions.  The  departures 
of  French  psychologists  are  very  welcome,  whatever 
the  final  outcome  may  be.  It  cannot  be  doubted  that 
the  study  of  hypnotism,  double  personality,  and  morbid 
states  of  various  kinds  has  greatly  advanced  our  know- 
ledge of  the  normal  man  and  his  fellows  lower  in  the 
scale;  and  I  should  be  disposed  to  say  that  the 
investigation  of  the  psychic  processes  of  animals  aids 
in  the  comprehension  of  even  such  abnormal  states  as 
those  to  which  reference  has  been  made. 

At  the  recent  great  Psychological  Congress  af~ 
Munich  there  was,  among  others,  a  Department  for 
Comparative  Psychology ;  and  an  Endowed  Lectureship 
on  this  subject  has  recently  been  established  at 
Aberdeen,  so  that  it  is  clear  that  in  this,  as  in  other 
directions,  the  world  is  moving. 

If  my  view  is  correct  that  we  are  in  need  of  vastly 
more  facts  and  observations,  then  is  there  room  for 
many  workers.  The  experimental  has  a  wide  range  of 
application  in  Comparative  Psychology,  and  as  yet 
but  little  has  been  done.  In  this  direction,  as  I  have 
urged  for  years  on  our  members,  we  could  do  much 
to  advance  the  subject  we  have  at  heart. 

It  has  been  my  happy  privilege  to  attend  every 
meeting  of  this  Association  held  since  its  foundation, 
and,  reviewing  the  work  of  the  past  ten  years,  1  feel 
that,  although  it  has  been  a  humble  one,  the  Society  for 
the  Study  of  Comparative  Psychology  in  Montreal  has 
not  existed  in  vain. 


PAKT    II. 

SQUIRRELS:  THEIR  HABITS  AND  INTELLI- 
GENCE, WITH  SPECIAL  REFERENCE  TO 
FEIGNING. 

WITH  AN  APPENDIX 
UPON  THE  CHICKAREE,  OR  RED  SQUIRREL. 

I. 

UNTIL  recently  the  habits  of  animals  seem  to  have 
been  considered  simply  as  interesting  manifestations  of 
their  life,  but  without  any  special  reference  to  their 
relations  to  the  intellectual  part  of  the  creatures 
concerned.  But  unless  we  assume  that  animals  are 
devoid  of  mind  and  true  intelligence — an  extreme  and 
untenable  position — there  must  be  a  possible  science  of 
Comparative  Psychology,  as  there  is  of  Comparative 
Anatomy  and  Physiology.  The  study  of  animal  intelli- 
gence is  possible,  interesting,  and  important,  whether 
we  regard  man  as  derived  from  some  lower  form,  and 
his  intellectual  as  well  as  his  physical  being  the  result 
of  evolution,  or  whether  we  consider  that  man  stands 
wholly  apart  in  origin  either  as  to  body  or  mind.  In 
the  latter  case  the  study  of  the  lower  forms  of  mind 
affords  a  useful  contrast  with  its  highest  develop- 
ment as  seen  in  man ;  in  the  former  we  aim  at  the 
construction  of  a  ladder  by  which  we  may  climb  from 
the  simplest  manifestations  of  consciousness  to  the 
highest  performances  of  the  most  gigantic  human 
intellect. 

I  have  selected  the  study  of  squirrel  psychology  as 


SQUIRRELS  53 

the  subject  of  this  paper,  because  so  little  seems  to  have 
been  written  on  the  subject ;  because  these  animals  are 
open  to  the  observation  of  every  one;  and  chiefly 
because  I  have  been  able  to  give  special  attention  to 
them  myself.  Their  habits  will  be  considered 
principally,  but  not  exclusively,  from  the  psychological 
standpoint,  and  I  shall  apply  the  comparative  method, 
making  such  references  to  the  habits  and  intelligence 
of  other  rodents  as  seem  to  throw  light  on  those  of  the 
squirrel.  While  some  attention  has  been  paid  to  other 
species  of  squirrels,  my  studies  have  been  chiefly  on  the 
Ground  Squirrel  (Tamias  Lysteri)  and  the  Red  Squirrel 
(Sciurus  Hudsonius). 

These  species,  in  many  respects,  form  a  contrast  to 
each  other.  The  Chipmunk,  Chipping  Squirrel,  or 
Hackee,  has  his  abode  underground  in  a  specially 
constructed  burrow;  the  Eed  Squirrel,  or  Chickaree, 
lives  in  nests  in  trees,  and  the  intelligence  of  the 
latter  seems  to  be  altogether  of  a  much  higher  order 
than  in  the  Ground  Squirrel.  This  was  abundantly 
illustrated  in  my  experiments  with  an  ordinary  wire 
rat-trap  having  a  spring  door.  The  trap  was  scarcely 
laid  down  near  the  haunts  of  the  Chipmunk  before  one 
entered  it,  in  fact  before  my  eyes,  and  there  was  never 
any  difficulty  in  securing  as  many  as  were  wanted. 
On  several  occasions,  when  one  had  escaped  in  the  room, 
on  placing  a  small  apple  in  the  cage,  the  creature 
re-entered  it  almost  at  once. 

Very  different  was  it  with  the  Ked  Squirrels ;  at  first 
they  entered  the  trap,  but  not  afterwards.  They 
approached  it,  sometimes  two  or  three  together,  ran 
round  it  on  the  upper  rail  of  the  fence  on  which  it  was 
placed,  or  sat  on  the  top  of  it — in  short,  did  everything 
but  enter  it ;  all  the  while  seeming  to  enjoy  the  whole 
greatly. 

Having  secured  a  couple  of  Ground  Squirrels  in  the 


54  ANIMAL   INTELLIGENCE 

manner  described,  I  kept  them  under  observation  for 
the  period  during  which  they  survived,  viz.,  one  for 
about  a  month  and  the  other  for  between  two  and 
three  months.  From  the  first  one  of  them  seemed  to 
take  more  kindly  to  his  new  surroundings  than  the 
other;  one  appeared  shy  and  dull,  while  his  fellow 
seemed  as  happy  as  any  Chipmunk  might  be.  They 
were  captured  in  September,  and  it  has  often  occurred 
to  me  that  their  habit  of  hibernation  had  something  to 
do  with  the  behaviour  of  the  one,  though  we  should 
expect  that,  in  such  a  matter,  both  would  be  equally  or 
considerably  affected.  The  degree  to  which,  while 
retaining  their  original  habits,  the  latter  became 
modified  in  confinement,  furnished  me  with  an  interest- 
ing study,  and  suggested  many  problems.  My  ex- 
perience does  not  agree  wholly  with  that  of  Audubon 
and  Bachmann,  who  say  in  their  "  Quadrupeds  of 
North  America" :  "  We  are  doubtful  whether  this 
species  can  at  any  time  be  perfectly  tamed."  The  one 
of  my  Chipmunks  that  survived  longest  became,  in  a 
short  time,  so  tame  that  he  would  eat  from  the  hand, 
and  even  looked  to  be  fed  in  this  way.  True,  any 
noise,  or  any  unusual  movement,  might  startle  the 
creature,  when  he  would  make  the  quick  dart  away 
so  characteristic  of  the  species  in  the  wild  state,  but 
from  this  he  very  quickly  recovered,  and  the  tendency 
to  be  thus  frightened  grew  less  and  less.  The  authors 
referred  to  also  state  that  "  they  appeared  to  have  some 
aversion  to  playing  on  a  wheel,  which  is  so  favourite 
an  amusement  of  the  true  squirrels." 

This  does  not  at  all  agree  with  my  observations, 
for  though  at  first  my  Chipmunk  was  apt  to  be  startled 
when  he  found  the  revolver  of  his  cage  moving  on  his 
entering  it,  he  soon  got  used  to  it,  and  delighted  in  it  as 
much  as  any  squirrel  could — in  fact,  he  used  it  by 
night  and  by  day,  manifesting  an  ability  to  control  it 


SQUIRRELS  55 

which  speaks  much  for  the  readiness  with  which  such 
animals  adapt  themselves  to  new  and  difficult  move- 
ments, and  which  shows  how  highly  developed  those 
parts  of  the  brain  must  be  which  are  concerned  in  the 
balancing  and  kindred  functions.  I  may  here  correct 
another  statement  of  the  same  authors.  They  maintain 
that  squirrels  do  not  lap  fluids  as  the  dog  and  cat. 
From  repeated  observations  I  know  this  to  be  an  error, 
so  far  as  the  Ground  Squirrel  is  concerned  at  least. 

It  has  usually  been  assumed  that  squirrels,  and 
indeed  most  rodents,  feed  wholly  on  vegetable  food, 
and  that  in  those  instances  in  which  the  contrary  has 
been  observed,  there  was  evidence  of  a  perverted  or 
morbid  appetite.  Audubon  and  Bachmann,  however, 
state  that  the  Flying  Squirrel  (Pteromys  volucella,  Des.) 
has  been  caught  in  traps  baited  with  meat.  A  number 
of  writers,*  especially  within  the  past  few  years,  have 
drawn  attention  to  flesh-eating  habits  in  several  rodents, 
mostly  under  peculiar  circumstances.  Some  interest- 
ing questions  arise  in  this  connection :  (1)  In  how  far 
is  any  rodent  carnivorous  when  abundance  of  all  the 
different  kinds  of  vegetable  food  that  the  animal  uses 
is  at  hand  ?  (2)  What  is  the  relation  between 
confinement  and  altered  appetites  ?  (3)  In  how  far  are 
such  altered  appetites  evidence  of  morbid  or  perverted 
conditions,  and  in  how  far  simply  the  expression  of 
physiological  needs  ?  The  whole  subject,  I  am  inclined 
to~  "think,  might  be  placed  on  a  broad  and  sound 
physiological  foundation,  but  before  that  can  be  done, 
many  accurate  observations  are  required,  and  possibly 
also  many  series  of  experiments.  If  we  may  judge  by 
the  common  house  rat,  rodents  possess  unusual  plasticity 
as  to  feeding  and  other  habits,  and  not  less  as  regards 
their  mental  life.  I  found  that  my  Chipmunk  would 

*  Science,  vol.  viii ;  Canadian  Naturalist,  vol.  iii. 


56  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

take  a  great  variety  of  foods,  though  the  experiment 
of  feeding  with  meat  was  not  tried.  He  drank  milk 
greedily. 

There  is  one  very  peculiar  habit,  interesting  from  a 
physiological  point  of  view,  to  be  observed  in  squirrels 
in  confinement.  A  writer  in  Nature  (vol.  x.)  says: — 
"  I  have  noticed  that  whenever  it  [the  squirrel]  cleans 
itself,  after  licking,  it  sneezes  violently  three  or  four 
times  into  its  fore-paws,  then  rubs  them,  thus  damped, 
over  its  fur."  And  this  writer  raises  the  question  as  to 
whether  this  habit,  which  he  believes  voluntary,  was 
confined  to  squirrels.  He  does  not  mention  what  sort 
of  a  squirrel  his  own  was,  but  I  have  noticed  this 
behaviour  as  of  the  most  frequent  occurrence  in  my 
caged  Chipmunk.  It  seems  to  me,  on  the  whole,  most 
natural  to  consider  it  a  voluntary  act  of  the  same 
character,  and  possibly  for  a  similar  purpose,  as 
clearing  the  throat  in  the  human  subject,  or  perhaps 
even  blowing  the  nose ;  and  I  am  the  more  inclined 
to  believe  that  it  is  voluntary  from  the  account  given 
of  the  Flying  Squirrel,  as  observed  by  Prof.  G.  H. 
Perkins,  and  recorded  in  the  American  Naturalist 
(vol.  vii.).  This  writer  states  that  on  one  occasion  his 
squirrel  lapped  some  ink,  but  shortly  afterwards 
manifested  disgust,  and  indulged  in  violent  sneezings. 
Under  these  circumstances  it  is  difficult  to  understand, 
by  anything  in  our  own  experience,  how  the  act  could 
have  been  reflex. 

Speaking  of  the  relative  intelligence  of  squirrels,  this 
writer  says : — "  I  am  inclined  to  believe  that  the  Flying 
Squirrel  does  not  possess  as  much  intelligence  as  the 
Grey  or  Eed,  or  some  other  species."  From  the  entire 
account  of  the  Flying  Squirrel  given  by  Prof.  Perkins, 
I  should  suppose  that  the  intelligence  of  this  species 
and  that  of  the  Ground  Squirrel  are  about  on 


SQUIRKELS  5f 

a  par — the  explanation   of   which  will  be  considered 
later. 

A  question  of  much  interest  to  the  naturalist  and 
psychologist,  it  seems  to  me,  is  the  following,  viz.  to 
what  extent  the  intelligence  of  animals  that  hibernate 
has  been  modified  by  this  process, and  in  what  directions? 
With  regard  to  hibernation,  so  far  as  the  squirrels  are 
concerned,  there  seems  to  be  great  dea,rth  of  accurate 
observations — in  fact,  the  same  remark  applies  to  the 
whole  subject  of  hibernation,  one  of  the  most  interesting 
in  the  whole  realm  of  physiology.  A  number  of  obser- 
vations are  to  be  found  scattered  through  the  literature, 
but  they  are  fatally  lacking,  in  most  cases,  in  precision 
of  observation  and  accurate  record  of  dates.  From  a 
short  but  valuable  paper  on  the  "  American  Chipmunk," 
in  the  Popular  Science  Monthly  (vol.  vii.),  by  Dr  C. 
Abbott,  we  are  led  to  believe  that  the  Ground  Squirrel 
spends  some  time  in  his  burrow  before  hibernation 
begins,  and  that  the  food  laid  up  is  consumed  in  part 
before  the  winter  torpor  sets  in,  and  more  especially  in 
spring  before  a  fresh  supply  is  obtainable  in  the  usual 
way.  Concerning  the  winter  habits  of  other  species, 
I  have  been  able  to  learri  nothing  from  any  quarter 
that  definitely  settles  the  question  as  to  whether  they 
hibernate  or  not.  Audubon  and  Bachmann  (loo.  cit.) 
state  that  as  much  as  one  bushel  and  a  half  of  nuts 
has  been  found  in  a  single  hollow  tree  occupied  by 
a  Chickaree,  or  Eed  Squirrel.  They  also  state  that  this 
species  may  have  several  hoards.  From  different 
remarks  dropped  by  these  writers,  from  what  I  have 
myself  observed,  and  from  the  statements  of  Dr  Bell  in 
the  valuable  notes  appended  to  this  paper,  I  am  inclined 
to  the  belief  that  the  Eed  Squirrel,  and  some  other 
species,  do  not  regularly  hibernate  the  whole  winter 
through;  but  whether  they  hibernate  at  all,  in  the 
true  sense  of  that  term;  whether  they  have  short 


58  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

periods  of  hibernation  followed  by  intervals  of  con- 
sciousness, during  which  they  feed;  whether  they 
remain  in  a  condition  of  partial  torpor,  with  slow- 
ing of  all  the  vital  processes,  and  yet  not  in  absolute 
insensibility  and  with  cessation  of  respiration,  etc. 
— all  these  questions  seem  to  be  as  yet  wholly  un- 
decided. 

It  has  long  been  known  that  many  cold-blooded 
animals  hibernate  and,  under  altered  conditions, 
aestivate;  it  is  further  believed  that  among  warm- 
blooded animals,  besides  bats,  many  rodents,  and  some 
allied  animals  hibernate.  But  when  the  matter  is 
looked  into  carefully  it  is  found  that  the  term  "  hiber- 
nation "  has  been  used  in  a  loose  and  very  plastic  sense 
by  different  authors.  It  is  highly  desirable,  therefore, 
that  writers  should  state  exactly  to  what  extent  the 
animal  they  describe  as  "torpid,"  "hibernating,"  or 
"  in  winter-sleep,"  deviates  functionally  from  the 
normal;  also,  that  the  exact  time  of  the  observations 
be  recorded.  There  is  a  certain  amount  of  evidence 
that  even  birds,  representing  the  highest  type  of 
activity,  may  possibly  hibernate,  and  that  many 
animals,  not  usually  thus  affected,  may  become  so 
under  exceptional  circumstances  —  indeed  that  man 
himself,  owing  to  peculiar  states  of  the  nervous  system, 
may  pass  into  a  condition  ("  trance  ")  having  much  in 
common  with  the  hibernation  of  lower  animals.  I 
think  it  is  very  probable  that,  when  the  matter  has 
been  fully  investigated,  all  degrees  of  cessation  of 
functional  activity  will  be  found  represented,  from  the 
normal  daily  sleep  of  man  and  other  animals  to  the 
lowest  degree  of  activity  consistent  with  the  actual 
maintenance  of  life.  The  Flying  Squirrel  is  nocturnal 
in  habits  and  exceedingly  active,  even  in  confinement, 
as  Prof.  Perkins  (loc.  cit.)  has  shown ;  but  during  the 
day-time  it  seems  not  to  be  correspondingly  quick — in 


SQUIfcKELS  59 

a  conditioD,  in  fact,  resembling  somewhat  that  of  a 
hibernating  animal.  The  "  diurnal  hibernation  "  of  the 
bat  is  not  to  be  forgotten.  I  noticed  that  my  Chip- 
munk invariably,  after  feeding,  tucked  his  head  down 
and  assumed  a  more  or  less  ball-like  form,  highly 
suggestive  of  a  tendency  to  hibernation. 

There  are  many  questions  that  arise  in  connection 
with  this  subject,  one  of  which  bears  directly  on  the 
subject  of  Comparative  Psychology :  How  and  to  what 
extent  is  the  intelligence  of  animals  influenced  by 
hibernation  ?  It  may  be  considered  pretty  clear  that 
both  the  Ground  Squirrel  and  the  Flying  Squirrel 
hibernate,  and  these  are  certainly  among  the  lowest — 
perhaps  are  actually  the  lowest — in  intelligence  of  the 
whole  tribe.  We  know  that  struggle  among  higher 
animals  develops  mental  adaptation  and  other  forms 
of  intelligence,  and  it  is  rational  to  suppose  that  those 
species  of  squirrels  that  do  not  hibernate  throughout 
the  winter,  but  endeavour  to  prevail  over  their  sur- 
roundings, as  well  as  to  adapt  themselves  to  them 
should  be  more  intelligent  than  those  spending  a  large 
portion  of  each  year  in  inactivity. 

My  Chipmunk,  during  its  captivity,  under  certain 
circumstances,  kept  to  his  original  habits,  e.g.  when  a 
single  nut  was  given  him  he  would  eat  it  immediately, 
but  if  several  were  presented  at  once  he  would  hide 
them,  one  by  one,  in  a  corner  of  his  cage,  or,  if  sufficiently 
small,  pack  them  away  in  his  cheek-pouches.  He  did 
the  same  with  cereal  grains.  When  cotton-wool  or 
web-like  material  was  placed  in  the  cage  he  manipu- 
lated it  a  good  deal,  but  finally  made  a  bed  of  it,  in 
which  he  buried  himself  out  of  sight. 

Within  the  last  ten  years  attention  has  been  called 
to  "  singing "  in  certain  rodents,  especially  mice ;  but 
from  numerous  references  in  the  literature  it  appears 
that  "  singing,"  or  something  analogous  to  it,  has  been 


60  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

noticed  in  a  large  number  of  rodents.*  The  well- 
known  note  of  the  Chipmunk,  from  which  it  has 
derived  its  name,  is  the  only  one  I  have  heard  from  it. 
After  studying  a  colony  of  Eed  Squirrels  for  some 
weeks  last  summer,  I  came  to  the  conclusion  that  they 
have  a  capacity  of  vocal  expression  much  greater  than 
is  commonly  believed.  Their  usual  "  barking,"  or  trill- 
ing, seems  to  be  the  commonest,  the  most  instinctive, 
and  not  largely  expressive  of  anything  beyond  general 
satisfaction ;  but,  I  found  that,  under  excitement,  there 
were  many  other  tones,  associated  with  great  complexity 
of  emotion,  which  I  am  not  prepared  to  analyse,  but 
which  there  can  be  little  doubt  the  creatures  themselves 
employ  as  a  means  of  inter-communication.  Under 
marked  excitement,  as  the  result  of  repeated  inter- 
ferences, I  have  heard  a  Ked  Squirrel  so  mingle  tones 
of  a  musical  kind  that,  a  stranger  arriving  on  the  spot, 
would  certainly  have  been  deluded  into  the  belief  that 
he  was  listening  to  some  bird,  or  rather  to  an  excited 
pair  of  birds.  The  musical  character  of  this  combina- 
tion, together  with  its  continuity  and  complexity,  would 
perhaps  justify  the  designation  "song."  One  of  the 
writers  on  musical  mice  refers  to  their  singing  but 
little  in  certain  instances,  except  when  excited,  which 
is  a  point  of  analogy  with  the  Chickaree. 

It  would  appear,  therefore,  that  it  is  likely  that 
throughout  the  order  Eodentia  a  genuine  musical 
appreciation  and  executive  capacity  exists,  and,  in  some 
instances,  in  a  very  high  degree ;  and  that  apart  from 
this,  there  is  also  considerable  ability  displayed  in  the 
expression  of  states  of  emotion,  at  least,  by  vocal  forms. 
Manifestly,  the  degree  to  which  animals  can  express 
their  psychic  states — and  especially  in  vocal  forms — is 
a  matter  of  the  greatest  importance,  and  I  have  already 

*  See  especially  Nature,  vol.  xv. ;  Popular  Science  Monthly,  vol.  i. ; 
and  the  American  Naturalist. 


SQUIRRELS  61 

expressed  my  conviction  that  animals  have  a  power  of 
communicating  with  each  other,  altogether  beyond 
what  has  been  generally  surmised.  The  subject  is 
beset  with  great  difficulties,  and  calls  for  the  closest 
observations. 


II. 


I  PROPOSE,  in  this  second  part  of  my  paper,  to  discuss 
the  subject  of  feigning  in  animals,  and  shall  give,  as  a 
basis  for  my  views  in  the  case  of  the  squirrels,  an 
account  of  two  Chickarees,  in  which  such  behaviour 
was  strikingly  manifested. 

Case  I. 

I  was  standing  near  a  tree  in  which  a  Ked  Squirre\ 
had  taken  up  a  position,  when  a  stone  thrown  into  the 
tree  was  followed  by  the  fall  of  the  squirrel.  I  am 
unable  to  say  whether  the  squirrel  was  himself  struck, 
whether  he  was  merely  shaken  off,  or  how  to  account 
exactly  for  the  creature's  falling  to  the  ground. 
Running  to  the  spot  as  quickly  as  possible,  I  found  the 
animal  lying  apparently  lifeless.  On  taking  him  up,  I 
observed  not  the  slightest  sign  of  external  injury.  He 
twitched  a  little  as  I  carried  him  away  and  placed  him 
in  a  box  lined  with  tin,  and  having  small  wooden  slats 
over  the  top,  through  the  intervals  of  which  food  might 
be  conveyed.  After  lying  a  considerable  time  on  his 
side,  but  breathing  regularly,  and  quite  free  from  any 
sort  of  spasms  such  as  might  follow  injury  to  the 
nervous  centres,  it  was  noticed  that  his  eyes  were  open, 
and  that  when  they  were  touched  winking  followed. 
Determined  to  watch  the  progress  of  events,  I  noticed 
that  in  about  an  hour's  time  the  animal  was  upon  his 


62  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

feet,  but  that  he  kept  exceedingly  quiet.  The  next  day 
he  was  very  dull — ill,  as  I  thought — and  I  was  inclined 
to  the  belief,  from  the  way  he  moved,  that  possibly  one 
side  was  partially  paralysed ;  but  finding  that  he  had 
eaten  a  good  deal  of  what  had  been  given  him  (oats),  I 
began  to  be  suspicious.  Notwithstanding  this  apparent 
injury,  that  very  day,  when  showing  a  friend  the 
animal,  on  lifting  aside  one  of  the  slats  a  little,  he 
made  such  a  rush  for  the  opening  that  he  all  but 
escaped.  On  the  third  day  after  his  capture,  having 
left  the  sitting-room  (usually  occupied  by  two  others 
besides  myself)  in  which  he  was  kept  for  a  period  of 
about  two  hours,  I  was  told,  on  my  return,  by  a  maid- 
servant and  a  boy  employed  about  the  house,  that  some 
time  previously  the  squirrel  had  escaped  by  the  window, 
and,  descending  the  wall  of  the  house,  which  was 
"  rough- cast,"  he  had  run  off  briskly  along  a  neigh- 
bouring fence,  and  disappeared  at  the  root  of  a  tree. 
When  asked  if  they  saw  any  evidence  of  lameness, 
they  laughed  at  the  idea,  after  his  recent  performances 
before  their  eyes.  For  several  days  I  observed  a  squirrel 
running  about,  apparently  quite  well,  in  the  quarter  in 
which  my  animal  had  escaped,  and  I  feel  satisfied  that 
it  was  the  squirrel  that  I  had  recently  had  in  confine- 
ment, but,  of  course,  of  this  I  cannot  be  certain. 

I  believe,  now,  that  this  was  a  case  of  feigning,  for 
if  the  injury  had  been  so  serious  as  the  first  symptoms 
would  imply,  or  if  there  had  been  real  paralysis,  it 
could  not  have  disappeared  so  suddenly.  An  animal, 
even  partially  paralysed,  could  scarcely  have  escaped  as 
he  did  and  show  no  signs  of  lameness.  His  apparent 
insensibility  at  first  may  have  been  due  to  catalepsy  or 
slight  stunning.  But  while  there  are  elements  of 
doubt  in  this  first  case,  there  are  none  such  in  that 
about  to  be  described. 


SQUIRRELS  63 

Case  II. 

A  Chickaree  was  felled  from  a  small  tree  by  a  gentle 
tap  with  a  piece  of  lathing.  He  was  so  little  injured 
that  he  would  have  escaped  had  I  not  been  on  the  spot 
where  he  fell  and  seized  him  at  once.  He  was  placed 
forthwith  in  the  box  that  the  other  animal  had  occupied. 
He  manifested  no  signs  whatever  of  traumatic  injury. 
One  looking  in  upon  him  might  suppose  that  here  was 
a  case  of  a  lively  squirrel  unwell,  but  events  proved 
otherwise.  He  ate  the  food  placed  within  the  box,  but 
only  when  no  one  was  observant.  He  kept  his  head 
somewhat  down,  and  seemed  indifferent  to  everything. 
When  a  stick  was  placed  near  his  mouth  he  savagely 
bit  at  it ;  but  when  a  needle  on  the  end  of  the  same 
stick  was  substituted  he  evinced  no  such  hostility.  He 
made  no  effort  to  escape  while  we  were  in  the  room, 
but,  on  our  going  down  to  dinner,  he  must  at  once  have 
commenced  work,  for,  on  returning  to  the  room  in  half- 
an-hour,  he  was  found  free,  having  gnawed  one  of  the 
slats  sufficiently  to  allow  him  to  squeeze  through. 
With  the  assistance  of  a  friend  he  was  recaptured,  but 
during  the  chase  he  showed  fight  when  cornered,  and 
finally,  as  he  was  being  secured,  I  narrowly  escaped 
being  bitten.  He  was  returned  to  his  box,  which  was 
then  covered  with  a  board  weighted  with  a  large  stone. 
Notwithstanding,  he  gnawed  his  way  out  through  the 
upper  corner  of  the  box  during  our  absence  on  one 
occasion  shortly  afterwards. 

I  think  a  more  typical  case  of  feigning  than  this  one 
could  scarcely  be  found. 

The  accounts  of  these  two  cases  are  based  upon  notes 
taken  at  the  time,  and  this  brings  me  to  the  most 
interesting,  and  at  the  same  time  the  most  difficult 
series  of  enquiries  connected  with  the  whole  subject, 
viz.^What,  upon  analysis,  is  this  feigning  in  animals  ? 


64  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

In  how  far  is  it  instinctive,  and  in  how  far  an  intelli- 
gent and  deliberate  adaptation  of  means  to  an  end 
under  unusual  circumstances  ?  How  did  the  instinct 
of  feigning  death  and  injury  arise  in  the  first  instance  ? 
Has  feigning  been  confounded  with  something  else 
totally  different,  such  as  the  results  of  fear,  surprise, 
etc.  ?  Is  the  expression,  "  feigning  death,"  not  mis- 
leading in  itself  ?  The  matter  is  so  intricate,  and  such 
diverse  views  have  been  entertained  in  regard  to  the 
subject  of  feigning,  that  it  will  be  necessary,  in  order  to 
arrive  at  a  solution,  to  examine  critically  several  of  the 
views  advanced. 

Feigning  death  has  been  observed  in  many  different 
genera  of  insects,  in  snakes,  fishes,  numerous  birds, 
crustaceans,  and  several  mammals. 

In  a  most  interesting  account  of  experiments  on 
certain  animals,  by  Prof.  Czermak,  published  in  the 
Popular  Science  Monthly  (vols.  iii.  and  iv.),  it  was 
shown  that  in  the  crayfish,  in  hens,  geese,  ducks, 
turkeys,  pigeons,  the  swan,  etc.,  a  state,  which  this 
writer  recognised  as  having  a  physiological  basis,  but 
which  he  did  not  attempt  himself  to  explain,  occurs. 
In  all  these  animals,  under  the  influence  of  steady 
restraint  of  motion,  or,  combined  with  that,  prolonged 
gazing  at  some  object  held  just  before  the  eyes,  a  con- 
dition of  quietude  and  partial  or  complete  unconscious- 
ness was  induced  for  a  shorter  or  longer  period,  after 
which  they  regained  their  usual  condition.  In  some 
of  the  animals  the  muscles  became  rigid,  i.e.  the 
cataleptic  condition  was  induced. 

About  five  years  later  Prof.  Preyer  gave  the  subject 
a  thorough  experimental  examination.  The  starting 
point  of  all  these  experiments  was  the  experimentum 
mirabile  of  Kircher,  in  1646 ;  Preyer  seems  to  use  the 
term  "  cataplexy  "  to  cover  what  is  now  more  commonly 
called  "  catalepsy/'  or  "  hypnotism."  Preyer  believed 


SQUIERELS  65 

that  the  shamming  death  of  certain  species  of  the 
Articulata,  when  threatened  by  danger,  was  due  to 
cataplexy.  The  condition  was  attended  in  certain 
animals  by  stupor,  violent  tremblings  of  the  €(x- 
tremities,  and  other  pronounced  disturbances  of  function 
and  psychic  state.  This  writer  then  explained  the  con- 
dition, called  by  some  "  shamming  death,"  by  a  sudden, 
powerful,  unexpected,  and  unusual  stimulus  acting  on 
the  centripetal  nerves,  producing  an  emotion  of  fear 
which  acts  on  the  will,  inhibiting  it  and  producing 
stupor;  "deathly  terror,"  in  a  word,  is  the  condition, 
and  not  feigning,  according  to  Preyer. 

The  well-known  physiologist,  Heidenhain,  performed 
many  experiments,  chiefly  on  the  human  subject,  with 
a  view  of  arriving  at  a  physiological  solution  of  these 
remarkable  phenomena.  He  has  framed  the  theory, 
that  hypnotism  is  due  to  the  inhibition  of  the  cortical 
cells  of  the  cerebrum,  caused  by  the  gentle  prolonged 
stimulation  of  the  nerves  of  the  face,  eyes,  or  ears. 

Dr  Clarke,  in  the  Popular  Science  Monthly  (vol.  ix.), 
discusses  the  results  of  Czermak  and  others,  and  con- 
cludes that  "they  depend  wholly  and  only  on  fear," 
for  he  maintains  that  the  experiments  succeed  best  in 
the  wilder  individuals  of  the  species.  But  Dr  Clarke 
is  scarcely  consistent,  for  he  points  out  in  the  same 
paper  that  animals  cease  to  struggle  because  they  find 
it  useless,  and  this  he  ascribes  to  intelligence. 

Dr  D.  W.  Prentiss,  in  the  American  Naturalist  (vol. 
xvi.),  examines  the  matter  from  the  physician's  point 
of  view.  After  referring  to  the  "  dancing,"  "  convulsive," 
and  "  laughing "  manias,  and  to  certain  phenomena  in 
animals  like  those  already  described,  he  concludes  that 
the  factors  entering  into  the  phenomena  of  Czermak 
and  others  are  fear,  dissembling,  curiosity,  training, 
changes  in  the  condition  of  the  blood  (deficiency  of 
oxygen  from  restrained  chest  movements),  and  imitation. 

E 


66  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

To  my  own  mind  all  these  explanations  are  partial 
and  inadequate.  That  terror,  surprise,  etc.  are  in 
no  sense  essential  for  the  induction  of  hypnotism  is 
sufficiently  evident  from  Czermak's  experiments  on 
pigeons,  which  could  not  be  put  into  this  condition  by 
mere  restraint,  but  only  after  uniting  with  this  steady 
gazing  at  a  near  object.  Again,  it  is  well  known  that 
the  human  subject  can  be  hypnotised  by  the  latter 
means  alone,  as  Heidenhain  first  attempted  to  show. 
The  latter's  explanation,  though  perhaps  as  good  as 
can  be  given  in  the  existing  state  of  physiological 
knowledge,  does  not  apply  evidently  in  its  present  form 
to  animals  in  which  the  cerebrum  is  not  developed, 
as  in  insects  and  other  invertebrates.  The  view  of 
Dr  Prentiss  has  the  merit  of  breadth,  but  manifestly 
some  of  his  factors,  as  training,  imitation,  etc.,  cannot 
apply  to  the  hypnotic  condition  when  first  experienced, 
at  least  in  the  lower  animals. 

Notwithstanding  the  inconsistency  in  Dr  Clarke's 
article,  he  is  probably  quite  correct  in  explaining  the 
quiet  of  animals,  when  restrained,  in  many  cases  by  an 
intelligent  perception  that  struggle  is  useless.  I  have, 
myself,  frequently  noticed,  when  controlling  rabbits  in 
the  laboratory  for  the  purposes  of  observation,  that  so 
long  as  there  was  no  part  of  the  fastenings  loose,  they 
remained  quiet  without  any  attempt  at  freeing  them- 
selves ;  but,  if  only  a  single  limb  became  the  least  free, 
then  a  general  struggle  began.  But  such  an  explanation 
will  not  suffice  when  a  greater  or  less  degree  of  un- 
consciousness supervenes. 

It  may,  I  think,  be  said  that  the  phenomena  included 
under  such  terms  as  hypnotism,  cataplexy,  etc.  are  due 
to  influences  reaching  the  nervous  centres,  unusual 
either  in  quality  or  intensity,  or  with  an  altered  relation 
as  to  frequency  of  repetition  when  compared  with  those 
associated  with  the  ordinary  experiences  of  the  animal- 


SQUIRRELS  67 

When  we  fully  understand  the  physiology  of  sleep,  we 
may  then  be  able  to  give  a  final  and  satisfactory  ex- 
planation of  these  phenomena,  but  scarcely  before. 
However,  I  venture  to  assert,  that  most,  if  not  all  of 
the  phenomena  of  hypnotism,  may  find  psychological 
realisation  in  the  experiences  of  every  individual  human 
being,  if  he  will  but  observe  himself  closely  enough 
over  a  sufficiently  long  period  of  time. 

Turning  now  to  feigning  death.  This  subject  did  not 
escape  that  great  master  of  close  observation,  Charles 
Darwin.  He  says,  in  his  "Essay  on  Instinct"  (now 
published  as  an  Appendix  to  Dr  Komanes'  work, 
"  Mental  Evolution  in  Animals  ") : 

"  Insects  are  most  notorious  in  this  respect.  We  have  amongst 
them  a  most  perfect  series,  even  with  the  same  genus  (as  I  have 
observed  in  Circulio  and  Chrysomela\  from  species,  which  feign 
only  for  a  second,  and  sometimes  imperfectly  still  moving  their 
antennae  (a8  with  some  Histers\  and  which  will  not  feign  a 
second  time  however  much  irritated,  to  other  species,  which, 
according  to  De  Geer,  may  be  cruelly  roasted  at  a  slow  fire  with- 
out the  slightest  movement ;  to  others  again  which  will  long 
remain  motionless,  as  much  as  twenty-three  minutes,  as  I  find 
with  Clirysomela  spartii." 

Darwin  speaks  of  such  feigning  as  instinctive. 
Eomanes  (loc.  cit.)  believes  it  instinctive,  but  thinks 
cataplexy  may  have  been  of  much  assistance  in  originat- 
ing and  developing  it.  Poth  of  these  writers  agree, 
however,  that  instinct  has  been  perfected  by  natural 
selection. 

If  this  shamming  death,  or  rather  assuming  the 
position  of  the  dead,  were  really  of  benefit  to  the 
animals,  such  an  explanation  might  be  valid  if  natural 
selection  be  admitted  at  all.  On  the  other  hand, 
Darwin  has  shown  that  the  position  assumed  by  the 
shamming  insects  "in  no  instance  was  exactly  the  same  " 
as  that  of  the  dead  insects,  and  in  many  cases  it  was  as 
unlike  as  could  be.  The  question  then  arises  in  my 


TTW1VKRSITY 


68  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

mind :  May  not  this  condition  assumed  by  insects  be  a 
peculiarity  with  which  natural  selection  has  nothing  to 
do — a  sort  of  imperfection  of  their  nervous  system,  if 
it  exposes  them  to  enemies,  the  reverse  if  it  conceals 
them — at  all  events,  not  necessarily  connected  with 
natural  selection,  for  animals  survive  in  spite  of 
peculiarities  and  imperfections  ?  In  fact,  the  conception 
that  any  animal  is  perfectly  adapted  to  its  surroundings 
is  unwarrantable,  otherwise  such  an  animal  should 
continue  to  live  in  perpetuum. 

Preyer  would  ascribe  the  so-called  shamming  death 
of  insects  wholly  to  cataplexy,  which  seems  highly 
probable.  Couch,  who  is  quoted  by  Komanes,  would 
explain  certain  behaviour  of  wolves,  foxes,  and  some 
other  animals,  usually  set  down  to  deliberate  feigning, 
by  an  effect  analogous  to  cataplexy.  He  thinks  their 
senses  are  stupefied  by  surprise,  terror,  etc.,  so  that  they 
are  unable  to  escape. 

The  transfixing  effect  of  fear  in  man  has  been  well 
described  by  the  poets,  including  Shakespeare  him- 
self:— 

«  Whilst  they,  distill'd 
Almost  to  jelly  with  the  act  of  fear, 
Stand  dumb,  and  speak  not  to  him." 

Komanes  inclines  to  give  weight  to  the  views  of 
Preyer  and  Couch  so  far  as  vertebrates  are  concerned. 
He  says :  "  A  fox  would  never  have  so  good  a  chance  of 
escape  from  an  enemy  by  remaining  motionless  as  it 
would  by  the  use  of  its  legs."  But  if  man  is  to  be 
reckoned  among  the  enemies  of  this  animal,  then, 
according  to  instances  given  by  Eomanes  in  the  same 
chapter,  foxes  have  escaped  from  their  enemies  by 
feigning  death. 

I  have  often  noticed  how  one  dog  has  escaped  the 
attack  of  another  by  lying  down  and  assuming  an 


SQUIRRELS  69 

attitude  of  complete  surrender  (see  "Youatt  on  the 
Dog,"  Amer.  Edit.,  p.  34.)  Even  dogs  would  not  be 
inclined  to  worry  a  fox  apparently  dead.  And  what  of 
the  feigning  of  the  opossum  ?  Eomanes  finds  a  special 
difficulty  in  this  subject,  because,  as  he  says :  "  On  the 
one  hand,  it  is  obvious  that  the  idea  of  death  and  its 
conscious  simulation  would  involve  abstraction  of  a 
higher  order  than  we  could  readily  ascribe  to  any 
animal,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  not  easy  otherwise 
to  explain  the  facts." 

I  cannot  help  thinking  that  this  difficulty  is  a  sample 
of  those  we  make  for  ourselves  by  attempting  to  define 
and  classify  where  Nature  has  left  things  complex  and 
unsusceptible,  of  the  sort  of  simple  analysis  after  which 
Eomanes  and  others  are,  in  this  instance,  striving. 

If  there  is  a  vertebrate  animal  in  which  the  feigning 
of  death  is  an  instinct,  as  pure  as  such  an  instinct  can 
be,  that  animal  is  the  opossum  (Didelphys  virginiana, 
Shaw).  If  invariability  of  behaviour  under  similar 
circumstances  be  essential  to  an  instinct,  then  the 
opossum's  feigning  is  instinctive.  From  the  account  of 
a  writer  in  the  American  Naturalist  (vol.  vi.)  we 
learn  that  a  Turkey  Buzzard  (Cathartes  aura)  may  run 
upon  an  opossum  and,  after  flapping  his  wings  a  few 
times  over  him,  the  opossum  will  go  into  a  "  spasm," 
and  the  buzzard  proceed  to  pick  out  its  eyes,  and 
"  generally  take  a  pretty  good  bite  from  its  neck  and 
shoulders."  From  all  that  I  have  been  able  to  learn  of 
the  behaviour  of  this  animal  in  the  presence  of  such 
circumstances  as  lead  to  its  so-called  feigning,  I  have 
been  led  to  conclude  that  it  is  really  largely,  if  not  wholly, 
a  condition  allied  to,  if  not  identical  with,  Preyer's 
cataplexy ;  but  no  one  seems  to  have  given  the  subject 
that  accurate  examination  necessary  for  a  solution, 
in  this,  perhaps,  the  very  best  animal  in  which  to  test 
it.  The  creature  is  abundant,  and  could  be  captured  at 


70  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

any  age  and  degree  of  development.  In  this  case,  as 
the  animal  is  poor  in  resources  of  escape  by  flight,  etc., 
the  instinct  may  be  valuable  to  it,  but  from  the  above 
account  evidently  not  always. 

The  general  intelligence  of  the  animal  is  low,  for  it 
will  readily  enter  traps  laid  for  it.  I  am  the  more 
confirmed  in  the  above-stated  view  of  the  case,*  and 
indeed  of  the  extensive  prevalence  of  such  nervous 
phenomena,  from  an  examination  of  an  account  of  the 
behaviour  of  a  Turkey  Buzzard,  given  by  Dr  Prentiss 
in  the  paper  to  which  reference  has  already  been  made. 
This  writer  states  that,  having  winged  a  buzzard,  on 
coming  up  with  it  the  creature  lay  on  its  side  as  if 
dead.  Believing  it  really  was  dead,  he  thrust  it  into 
his  game-bag,  brought  it  home,  and  threw  it  down  in 
his  yard,  limp  and  apparently  lifeless.  A  little  later  it 
was  found  running  around,  but  on  being  approached 
it  acted  as  before,  and  with  each  shamming  it 
"  disgorged,"  to  use  the  writer's  expression.  He  further 
states  that  after  a  while  it  would  only  disgorge  and 
hiss.  Now,  on  comparing  this  "  disgorging "  with  the 
phenomena  described  by  Preyer,  as  witnessed  in  his 
animals  that  were  truly  hypnotic,  I  feel  quite  persuaded 
that  this  case  of  the  buzzard  is  explicable  by  the  facts 
of  hypnotism,  especially  as  the  symptoms  disappeared 
largely  on  familiarity  with  the  surroundings :  it  was 
not  a  genuine  case  of  feigning.  The  author  of  the 
account  does  not  himself  clearly  indicate  his  view  of 
the  case. 

But  Komanes,  while  inclined  to  the  theories  of  Couch 
and  Preyer  as  a  partial  explanation,  adduces  from  the 


*  Since  writing  the  above  I  have  been  pleased  to  find  that  Dr 
Charles  C.  Abbott  has  given  the  so-called  feigning  of  the  opossum 
a  careful,  one  might  say,  experimental  examination.  He  has  dis- 
cussed the  subject  in  his  work,  "A  Naturalist's  Rambles  About 
Home,"  and  has  been  led  to  form  conclusions  similar  to  my  own. 


SQUIRRELS  7l 

writings  of  others  instances  of  feigning  in  monkeys 
which  place  it  beyond  doubt  that  animals  may  con- 
sciously and  deliberately  feign;  yet  he  regards  the 
matter  as  one  of  great  difficulty.  Unquestionably  it 
is,  but  I  must  again  express  my  conviction  that 
Eomanes  has  imported  into  the  subject  difficulties 
which  are  not  in  the  nature  of  the  case  present. 
First  of  all,  is  it  at  all  essential  to  "  feigning "  either 
death  or  injury  that  an  animal  should  have,  as 
Eomanes  supposes,  the  abstract  idea  of  death  at  all  ? 
It  is  to  be  remembered  that  in  these  cases  the  animal 
simply  remains  as  quiet  and  as  passive  as  possible, 
which  is  in  accord  with  all  an  animal's  experiences 
as  to  escape  from  danger  by  any  form  of  concealment. 
We  have  all  degrees  of  this.  The  little  Chipmunk, 
when  a  hawk  is  at  hand,  squats,  if  on  a  fence ;  if  near 
its  burrow,  rushes  in,  according  to  Dr  Abbott  (loc.  cit.). 
It  is  within  the  observation  of  all,  that  a  cat  watching 
near  a  rat-hole  feigns  quiet;  in  like  manner  a  dog, 
desirous  of  capturing  the  fly  that  has  been  tormenting 
him,  feigns  apparent  unobservance  or  unusual  in- 
activity. I  suspect  that  a  human  being,  suddenly 
finding  himself  in  danger,  may,  and  often  does,  exercise 
a  similar  control  without  any  abstract  notion  of  death. 
Indeed,  the  extent  to  which  the  abstract  in  this  sense 
enters  into  the  psychic  life  of  men,  if  we  except  the 
higher  class  of  intellects  and  persons  well  educated, 
is  much  less  than  writers  have  been  wont  to  believe. 
A  great  part  of  the  whole  difficulty,  it  seems  to  me, 
has  arisen  from  the  use  of  the  expression  "feigning 
death."  What  is  assumed  is  inactivity  and  passivity, 
more  or  less  complete.  This,  of  course,  bears  a  certain 
degree  of  resemblance  to  death  itself. 

Keturning,  then,  to  the  case  of  my  feigning  Eed 
Squirrels,  I  should  be  inclined  to  explain  their  be- 
haviour somewhat  as  follows : — 


72  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

By  inherited  instinct,  as  well  as  by  all  those  life 
experiences  which  had  taught  them  that  quiet  and 
concealment  of  their  usual  activities  were  associated 
with  escape  from  threatened  evils,  these  little  animals 
were  naturally  led,  under  the  unwonted  circumstances 
of  their  confinement,  to  disguise,  in  an  extraordinary 
degree,  their  real  condition,  and  even  to  imitate  an 
unusual  and  unreal  one.  The  mental  process  is  a 
complex  of  instinct  pure  and  simple,  with  higher 
intellectual  factors  added,  and  the  cases  of  these 
squirrels,  thus  feigning,  are  among  the  clearest  that, 
so  far  as  I  am  aware,  have  ever  been  recorded.  The 
adaptations  to  effect  escape  prove  that  there  was  the 
employment  of  intellectual  processes  of  a  pretty  high 
order,  possibly  too  complex,  however,  for  analysis  with 
safety,  but  not  beyond  realisation  in  our  own  conscious- 
ness, and  without  the  employment  of  any  abstract  idea 
of  death. 

That,  however,  the  hypnotic  element  may  play  a 
part  in  the  apparent  feigning  of  death  by  squirrels 
seems  clear  from  a  case  communicated  to  me  by  a 
student  of  the  Montreal  Veterinary  College,  Mr  Craig. 
He  had  caught  a  Chipmunk  and  placed  it  in  a  box, 
to  find  in  a  few  moments  that  it  was  lying  as  if  dead. 
Giving  the  creature  liberty  to  escape,  it  presently  did 
so.  On  recapture  the  same  followed.  Considering  the 
relatively  low  intelligence  of  this  species  of  squirrel, 
and  taking  into  account  the  case  that  Dr  Eomanes 
mentions  of  his  watching  an  apparently  feigning 
squirrel  he  had  caught  when  he  found  that  it  had 
really  died  of  fright,  it  seems  to  me,  upon  the  whole, 
most  reasonable  to  attribute  the  behaviour  of  the 
Chipmunk  in  question  to  cataleptic  or  allied  effects. 

It  thus  becomes  manifest  how  varied,  and  also  how 
complex,  these  cases  of  so-called  feigning  may  be. 
The  subject  is  all  the  more  interesting  because  it  shows 


SQUIRRELS  73 

that  there  is  much  that  is  common  in  the  psychic  life 
of  human  beings  and  that  of  the  lower  animals.  It 
places  the  study  of  their  habits  and  intelligence  on  a 
higher  plane,  and  furnishes  new  motives  for  extending 
our  enquiries  and  attempting  to  give  unity  to  our 
conception  of  nature  in  this  as  in  other  domains. 

Most  remarkable  evidence  of  high  intellectual 
capacity  has  been  furnished  by  the  conduct  of  elephants 
under  surgical  operations,  as  instanced  by  Romanes  in 
his  "Animal  Intelligence;"  and  Principal  M'Eachran 
has  assured  me  that  both  dogs  and  horses  have  shown 
a  similar  intelligence  by  coming,  of  their  own  accord, 
to  his  veterinary  hospital  to  have  injuries  treated,  after 
having  been  there  and  experienced  the  benefit  therefrom. 
Dr  G.  P.  Girdwood,  a  few  days  ago,  gave  me  an  account 
of  what  appeared  to  be  a  similar  manifestation  in  a 
Chickaree  but  recently  caught,  though  in  this  case  so 
much,  perhaps,  cannot  be  claimed.  This  Chickaree 
submitted,  soon  after  being  caged,  to  having  parasites 
removed  from  the  skin,  voluntarily  remaining  quiet 
during  the  act. 

With  regard  to  the  psychological  rank  of  the  various 
species  of  squirrels,  both  from  what  I  have  been  able  to 
learn  from  the  writings  of  others,  and  from  my  own 
observations,  the  Chickaree  must  be  placed,  I  conclude, 
at  or  very  near  the  top  of  the  list.  The  Chipmunk  and 
the  Flying  Squirrel  seem  to  be,  as  already  said,  about 
equal  in  intelligence,  and  both  much  below  the  Eed 
Squirrel,  owing,  perhaps,  to  the  underground  life  of  the 
one  and  the  nocturnal  habits  of  the  other,  possibly  also 
to  annual  hibernation. 

The  wide  geographical  range  of  the  Chickaree,  as 
referred  to  by  Dr  Bell  in  the  Appendix,  of  itself 
indicates  great  power  to  adapt  itself  to  circumstances 
requiring  intelligence,  and  it  has  been  shown  abun- 
dantly in  this  paper  how  the  Red  Squirrel  can  ac- 


74  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

commodate  itself  to  new  conditions  and  cope  with 
emergencies. 

To  what,  then,  is  the  superior  intelligence  of  this 
species  due  ?  In  my  opinion,  partly  to  the  fact  that  he 
has  benefited  by  proximity  to  civilisation.  While  the 
Black  Squirrel  (Sciurus  niger)  seeks  the  depths  of  the 
forest,  the  Eed  Squirrel  keeps  near,  by  preference,  to 
the  abodes  of  man.  Among  rodents,  none  perhaps 
excels  the  domestic  rat  in  general  intelligence,  a  fact  to 
be  ascribed  to  this  same  human  contact.  Indeed,  there 
is,  perhaps,  no  group  of  animals  that  has  long  been 
near  man  that  has  not  been  more  or  less  elevated  in 
the  scale  of  intelligence  as  a  consequence,  which,  in 
turn,  shows  that  the  intellect  of  brutes  cannot  be  wholly 
different  from  that  of  man.  The  applicability  of  this 
explanation  to  the  squirrels  is  not  so  obvious  as  in  the 
case  of  some  other  animals.  The  superior  intelligence 
of  the  Ked  Squirrel  is  doubtless  the  resultant  of  a 
complex  of  factors  which  we  can  but  imperfectly  unravel, 
but  from  what  I  have  observed  as  the  result  of  actual 
experiment,  I  am  forced  to  conclude  that  this  creature 
can  readily  adapt  itself  so  as  to  overcome  the  obstacles 
and  avail  of  the  advantages  of  man's  civilisation ;  and 
I  see  no  reason  why,  as  a  consequence  of  ages  of  inheri- 
tance of  such  naturally  increasing  capacity  of  adapta- 
tion or  its  results,  the  general  intelligence  of  the  species 
might  not  be  raised.  Such,  however,  probably  con- 
stitutes but  one  element  of  a  complete  explanation. 


SQUIRRELS  75 


APPENDIX 

ON    THE    CHICKAREE,    OR   KED    SQUIRREL 
(Sciurus  ffudsonius,  Pennant). 

By  Dr  R.  BELL,  Geological  Survey,  Ottowa. 

GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION. — East  of  the  Eocky  Moun- 
tains the  Chickaree  ranges  northward  to  near  the  verge  of 
the  forests,  or  to  a  line  drawn  from  Fort  Churchhill,  on 
the  west  coast  of  Hudson  Bay,  to  the  mouth  of  Mackenzie 
Eiver,  and  throughout  the  Labrador  Peninsula,  except  the 
Barren  Grounds  which  form  its  northern  part.  It  is  also 
common  in  Alaska.  The  rufous  variety,  universally  known 
as  the  Eed  Squirrel,  is  abundant  throughout  the  Canadian 
provinces  and  the  northern,  eastern,  and  middle  states, 
extending  farthest  south  along  the  Alleghany  Mountains, 
or  into  Alabama.  In  the  Eocky  Mountains,  and  on  the 
Pacific  side,  the  varieties  Sciurus  Douylassi  and  S.  Fremonti 
take  the  place  of  the  more  widely  distributed  form.  An 
animal  which  can  maintain  a  cheerful  existence  over  such  a 
continental  area  must  necessarily  be  capable  of  adapting 
itself  to  a  great  variety  of  circumstances,  as  to  climate,  food, 
eto.  The  following  notes  will  relate  to  the  Chickaree  in  his 
more  northern  haunts  : — 

FOOD. — Northward  of  the  zone  of  butter-nuts,  beech-nuts, 
etc.,  the  hazel  extends  a  long  way — say,  to  a  line  drawn 
from  Lake  St  John  (on  the  Saguenay)  to  Lake  Athabasca, 
curving  southward  of  James  and  Hudson  Bays — and  affords 
a  large  proportion  of  their  food.  Besides  eating  them  con- 
stantly during  the  autumn,  they  store  up  considerable 
quantities  for  use  later  on. 

But  the  seeds  of  the  black  and  the  white  spruce  constitute 
their  grand  staple  in  the  north.  By  glancing  at  the  map  it 
will  be  seen  that  the  extent  of  territory  in  which  the  spruces 
abound,  to  the  total  or  partial  exclusion  of  other  food  resources, 
is  so  great  that  it  may  be  said  that  the  area  in  which  the 
Chickaree  lives  principally  on  the  seeds  of  these  trees  forms 
more  than  half  of  the  total  range  of  the  species,  so  that, 


76  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

taken  as  a  whole,  these  seeds  really  constitute  their  leading 
article  of  food. 

In  old  spruce  forests  in  the  north,  the  Chickaree  is  quite 
numerous,  and  almost  every  tempting  log  or  hummock  which 
commands  a  clear  view  all  around  (from  which  he  can  watch 
the  approach  of  enemies  while  feeding)  is  covered  with  the 
scales  of  the  numerous  cones  he  has  picked  to  pieces  in  order 
to  get  at  the  seeds.  They  evidently  thrive  on  this  diet,  for 
their  size  and  numbers,  as  well  as  their  activity  and  audacity, 
are  unabated. 

HABITS. — Their  mode  of  obtaining  a  supply  of  cones  is 
ingenious.  The  cones  grow  principally  at  the  tops  of  the 
spruce  trees,  and  the  largest  and  finest  are  always  to  be 
found  there.  The  Chickaree  selects  a  tree  which,  either 
from  the  steepness  and  density  of  its  upper  part,  or  from  its 
leaning  to  one  side,  makes  it  certain  that  the  cones,  if 
detached,  will  fall  to  the  ground ;  then  he  cuts  off  the 
heavily  laden  twigs  and  lets  them  drop.  This  is  done  with 
an  impatient  rapidity.  Should  a  person  be  sitting  quietly 
under  a  tree  while  one  of  these  busy  little  creatures  is  at 
work  at  the  top,  he  will  see  the  bunches  of  cones  come 
tumbling  down  in  such  quick  succession  that  he  might 
suppose  half  a  dozen  squirrels  were  at  work  instead  of  only 
one  industrious  little  fellow.  These  bunches  seldom  lodge 
in  the  branches  below,  but  should  the  squirrel,  on  his  way 
down  (after  having  cut  off  a  satisfactory  supply)*  notice  one 
of  them  arrested  in  a  hopeful  position  towards  the  extremity 
of  a  bough,  he  will  sometimes  run  out  and  give  it  a  second 
send-off.  In  climbing  tall  spruce  trees  for  observations  of 
the  surrounding  country,  I  have  often  noticed  bunches  of 
cones  lodged  where,  if  started  off  a  second  time,  they  would 
be  certain  to  catch  again  in  the  thick  branches  before  reach- 
ing the  ground.  The  squirrels  seem  to  understand  the 
situation  perfectly,  and  they  leave  such  bunches  to  their  fate, 
probably  arguing  that  it  would  be  easier  for  them  to  cut  off  fresh 
ones  than  to  trouble  themselves  further  about  property  lost  be- 
yond hope  of  profitable  recovery — a  piece  of  wisdom  which  the 
most  successful  business  men  have  also  learned  to  follow.  The 
Chickaree,  having  thrown  down  a  sufficient  stock  for  a  few 
days'  use,  proceeds  to  carry  them,  as  required,  to  his 
favourite  f eeding-placrc,  near  by.  I  have  occasionally  noticed 
a  squirrel  feeding  with  a  fresh  cone  lying  beside  the  one  he 
was  actually  dining  off,  as  if  it  were  waiting  to  be  attacked 


SQUIRRELS  77 

the  moment  he  got  through  with  the  first.  They  peel  off 
the  scales  in  succession,  and  nibble  out  the  seeds  with  great 
rapidity.  They  leave  their  stock  lying  about  under  the  tree, 
and  only  carry  off  one  or  two  cones  at  a  time.  A  little  drying 
causes  the  scales  to  gape,  and  so  facilitates  the  opening 
process. 

In  the  northern  regions  referred  to,  in  addition  to  spruce 
seeds,  the  Chickaree  appears  to  feed  a  good  deal  on  certain 
brownish,  mushroom-shaped  fungi.  These  they  seem  to 
prefer  in  a  partially  dried  or  decomposed  condition,  for  they 
carry  them  up  and  leave  them  for  a  time  on  the  flat,  spread- 
ing branches  on  the  sunny  sides  of  spruce  or  other  fir  trees. 
I  have  sometimes  seen  one  of  them  making  off  with  a  fungus 
nearly  as  large  as  his  own  body. 

CONSTANCY  OF  CHARACTER. — No  matter  where  you  meet  the 
Chickaree  in  the  north  country,  he  has  precisely  the  same 
peculiarities  of  habit  as  elsewhere.  In  the  depths  of  a  dark 
spruce  forest,  which  offers  no  temptations  for  a  visit  from 
even  the  few  human  inhabitants  of  these  regions,  and  which 
it  is  pretty  certain  have  never  before  been  trodden  by  the 
foot  of  man,  should  you  come  suddenly  upon  a  Chickaree, 
he  greets  you  with  the  same  saucy  familiarity  as  he  would  if 
you  disturbed  him  in  a  black  walnut  tree  on  the  borders  of 
Lake  Erie.  After  scolding  the  intruder,  with  his  head 
peeping  round  the  trunk  of  a  tree,  should  you  throw  a  stick 
at  him,  or  make  a  feint  to  run  to  the  side  he  is  on,  he  will 
merely  dodge  you  to  the  other  side  and  get  up  a  little  higher 
before  reconnoitring  you  again. 

WINTERING. — In  the  northern  regions  under  consideration 
the  Chickaree  appears  to  pass  the  coldest  part  of  the  winter 
in  nests  in  hollows  under  stumps,  or  in  fallen  trees,  and  the 
Indians  say  that  they  come  out  and  run  about  on  fine  days 
in  any  month.  They  make  nests — sometimes  as  large  out- 
side as  a  bushel  measure — of  moss,  leaves,  and  a  few  small 
sticks,  in  the  branches  of  trees  in  thickets,  at  moderate 
heights  above  the  ground.  These  they  appear  to  inhabit 
principally  in  the  autumn  and  spring. 

BREEDING. — The  Indians  have  sometimes  told  me  that  the 
squirrels  have  their  young  in  the  nests  just  referred  to,  but 
I  have  not  verified  this  statement  myself.  Their  season  of 
heat  is  said  to  be  the  early  spring,  just  when  the  snow 
begins  to  melt.  They  rear  but  one  family  each  year, 


78  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

SIZE  AND  COLOURING.  —  Throughout  the  vast  northern 
region  of  coniferous  forests  inhabited  by  the  Chickaree, 
between  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  Mackenzie  River,  the 
animal  presents  great  uniformity  of  size  and  colouring.  It 
is  considerably  larger  than  the  varieties  to  the  south  and 
west,  and  the  colour,  instead  of  being  decidedly  rufous 
above,  as  in  the  familiar  Red  Squirrel  of  civilised  regions,  is 
of  a  grey-fulvous  tinge.  Melanism  and  albinism,  or  any 
variation  whatever,  is  extremely  rare.  I  obtained  a  specimen 
at  Athabasca  Lake,  which  is  pure  white  beneath,  from  the 
nose  to  the  tail,  the  second  half  of  which  is  also  perfectly 
white. 

ENEMIES. — The  marten  seems  to  be  the  principal  enemy 
of  the  northern  Chickaree,  although  they  occasionally  fall  a 
prey  to  the  lynx,  and  they  also  appear  to  keep  a  watchful 
eye  on  the  mink,  the  fisher,  and  the  weasel. 

FEIGNING. — As  to  the  Chickaree's  habits  of  feigning,  I 
may  mention  a  case  which  came  under  my  observation  on 
Lake  Superior.  Being  detained  one  day  by  a  head-wind, 
my  men  amused  themselves  by  capturing,  alive,  a  mink  and 
a  Chickaree,  both  of  which  they  put  into  an  empty  box 
with  bars  in  front.  The  squirrel  seemed  to  dislike  the 
presence  of  the  mink  more  than  he  did  his  captivity,  and 
crouched  in  a  corner  with  his  head  drooping  and  his  eyes 
shut,  as  if  very  sick  or  totally  disabled.  After  the  mink 
had  got  over  his  first  fright,  and  begun  to  take  in  the  situa- 
tion, he  ventured  to  attack  the  squirrel,  which  immediately 
displayed  great  courage  and  activity,  completely  mastering 
his  enemy  for  the  time.  Next  morning,  however,  the  poor 
squirrel  was  found  dead  with  his  throat  cut. 


HIBERNATION  AND  ALLIED   STATES  IN 
ANIMALS. 

FOR  a  long  time  it  has  been  known  that  many  insects 
pass  into  a  state  of  profound  torpor  during  the  winter 
season,  from  which  they  are  apt  to  emerge,  as  seen  in 
our  house  flies,  when  the  temperature  rises  sufficiently 
high. 

Snails  are  well  known  to  provide  against  the 
approach  of  winter  by  closing  up  their  shells,  within 
which  they  sink  into  a  protective  sleep,  and  doubtless 
hibernation  is  a  very  widespread  phenomenon  among 
invertebrates. 

There  seems  to  be  little  doubt  that  in  cold  latitudes 
all  reptilia  and  amphibia  hibernate,  and  in  warm 
countries  sestivate.  Nevertheless,  definite  investiga- 
tions have  been  few.  At  the  Philadelphia  meeting  of 
the  American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of 
Science  of  1884,  A.  W.  Butler  made  an  interesting 
communication  on  this  subject,  giving  some  definite 
data,  more  especially  in  regard  to  the  hibernation  of 
the  "box  tortoise,"  "soft-shelled"  and  "hard-shelled" 
turtles,  frogs,  toads,  newts,  salamanders,  and  certain 
fishes,  which  may  be  found  stated  succinctly  in  the 
Proceedings  of  the  Association  for  that  year.  His 
observations  apply  to  Brookville,  Ind.,  U.S.A.  He 
concludes  that :  "  In  this  part  of  the  Ohio  Valley,  tor- 
toises, turtles,  toads,  and  frogs  are  regularly  found 
hibernating;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  newts,  sala- 
manders, and  many  species  of  fish  do  not,  as  a  rule, 
enter  a  torpid  state." 

79 


80  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

There  seems  to  be  no  doubt,  however,  that  many 
species  of  fish  do  hibernate.  Turning  to  warm-blooded 
animals  (komoiothermers),  it  is  thought  that  while  the 
brown  bear  of  Europe  and  the  badger  sleep  most  of  the 
time  in  winter,  they  do  not  hibernate  in  the  same  sense 
as  e.g.  the  dormouse.  The  black  bear  is  believed  to 
hibernate,  though  definite  information  about  the  winter 
life  of  this  creature  and  other  American  bears  generally 
would  be  very  welcome.  The  hedgehog  is  regarded  as 
a  true  hibernater  the  winter  long.  It  is  known  that 
the  tenrec  of  Madagascar  sleeps  for  three  months  in  his 
burrow  during  the  hottest  part  of  the  year.  It  is, 
however,  among  the  rodents  that  we  must  look  for  the 
most  perfect  hibernation ;  and  the  porcupine,  the 
hamster,  the  dormouse,  the  marmot — and,  as  some  think, 
the  squirrels,  are  the  best  known  examples.  But  if  the 
hibernation  of  the  bat  is  not  the  most  perfect,  it  seems 
to  have  been  about  the  best  studied,  for  Marshall  Hall's 
investigations  of  sixty  years  ago  are  still  to  be  regarded 
as  classic. 

In  consequence  of  reference  to  this  subject  in  a 
paper  on  Squirrels,  read  before  the  Society  in  1887,  and 
my  appeals  for  assistance  in  the  study  of  this  wide 
subject  (in  which  one  person  can  do  comparatively 
little  of  himself,  at  least  in  ascertaining  those  modifica- 
tions which  apply  for  different  latitudes  and  conditions), 
I  have  been  able  to  obtain  some  definite  information  as 
regards  the  winter  sleep  of  squirrels  especially. 

J.  P.  Bishop,  Professor  of  Science  in  the  State 
Normal  School  of  Buffalo,  KY.,  writes  me : 

"Regarding  hibernation,  I  seriously  doubt  whether  the  Red 
Squirrel,  in  the  latitude  of  Central  N.Y.,  ever  really  hibernates. 
I  have  seen  him  out  at  all  times  of  the  winter,  and  in  all  kinds  of 
weather,  even  when  the  thermometer  recorded  temperatures 
below  zero  and  the  air  was  full  of  snow.  But  he  is  much  more 
lively  in  warm  days,  which  he  prefers  for  feeding.  The  Grey 
Squirrel  is  more  sensitive  to  cold,  but  will  come  out  upon 
almost  any  warm  day  in  the  winter." 


HIBERNATION  AND  ALLIED   STATES  IN  ANIMALS      81 

I  am  also  indebted  to  Mr  W.  Yates  of  Hatchly, 
Ontario,  a  capable  and  loving  observer  of  Nature,  for 
several  notes.  He  says : 

"Trappers  are  opposed  to  the  belief  that  Red  Squirrels 
hibernate,  for  they  may  be  seen  in  the  woods  in  the  most 
inclement  weather.  They  do  not  store  up  food  in  nests  for 
themselves,  but  rob  the  dormouse  or  woodmouse,  and  kill  him 
when  they  can." 

This  seems  also  to  be  Mr  Yates'  own  view.  He 
says  that  Flying  Squirrels,  when  the  hollow  trees  on 
which  they  take  shelter  are  cut,  at  once  betake  them- 
selves in  the  most  lively  manner  to  some  other  hollow 
tree  in  the  neighbourhood,  the  location  of  all  of  which 
they  seem  to  know  beforehand.  This  scarcely  argues  a 
very  deep  sleep — if  sleep  at  all. 

As  to  the  Chipmunk  (Tamias  Lysteri),  which  certainly 
stores  up  food  in  a  burrow,  he  seems  more  in  doubt, 
but  is  not  inclined  to  believe  that  he  hibernates  for 
very  long  periods  at  all  events.  He  has  seen  them  out 
as  late  as  21st  December.  This  observer  has  made 
some  very  interesting  observations  on  a  tame  racoon 
(Procyon  Lotor).  This  creature  lived  in  a  hollow  log 
lined  with  straw,  and  "  drowsed  away  the  greater  part 
of  December  and  January,  leaving  any  food  placed 
before  him  unnoticed."  The  racoon  is  known  to 
spend  the  greater  part  of  the  winter  in  hollow  elm 
trees  in  this  part  of  the  country,  and  Mr  Yates 
points  out  that  the  cutting-down  of  most  of  these 
trees  resulted  in  the  racoons  betaking  themselves  to 
underground  burrows,  including  those  once  occupied 
by  foxes. 

He  says  of  the  Woodchuck  (Arctomys  Monax) : 

"Our  Marmot  hibernates  sooner  than  the  bear,  racoon  or 
Chipmunk.  Towards  the  last  of  October  he  deserts  his  burrow 
in  the  fields  for  one  in  the  woods,  choosing  a  dry,  sheltered  ridge, 
and  is  never  seen  out  till  mild  weather  returns." 


82  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

On  this  point  Prof.  Bishop  writes  me : 

11  Popular  belief  puts  the  time  of  hibernation  of  the  Wood- 
chuck  from  1st  October  to  May.  I  have  seen  them  out  well  into 
November,  and  have  known  of  their  being  caught  in  traps  on 
1st  January.  I  also  saw  the  tracks  of  one  myself  on  2nd  January. 
From  that  time  until  May  I  have  run  across  them  or  their 
tracks  after  a  warm  day." 

Mr  Yates  expresses  a  positive  opinion.  He  considers 
that  their  winter  sleep  is  of  the  most  profound  character, 
for  he  says:  "The  state  of  unconsciousness  is  death- 
like." As  to  bears,  he  simply  reiterates  the  belief  that 
they  hibernate  only  when  food  is  not  obtainable,  in 
which  view,  in  the  light  of  my  own  investigations, 
I  see  nothing  impossible. 

My  studies  on  the  torpor  of  cold-blooded  animals 
(poikilotJiermeTs)  have  been  little  more  than  casual 
observations  ;  on  the  bat  they  have  been  more  extensive, 
still  incomplete ;  but  the  condition  of  the  Woodchuck, 
our  American  Marmot,  during  winter  and  summer  in 
confinement,  has  had  my  close  attention  for  over  five 
years,  almost  continuously,  by  the  help  of  other 
members  of  my  family,  especially  of  my  wife,  the  time 
including  the  early  morning  and  evening  as  well  as  the 
hours  of  the  working  day.  Of  the  habits  of  this 
creature  when  in  its  natural  surroundings  I  know  but 
little  from  personal  observation. 

The  specimen  on  which  my  observations  and  experi- 
ments were  made  during  four  successive  years  was  kept 
in  confinement  for  some  time  prior  to  its  coming  into 
my  possession — how  long  I  do  not  know.  It  was  of 
medium  size,  and  seemed  to  get  more  tame  as  time  went 
on,  but  when  frightened  or  angry  it  acted  always  very 
much  as  a  perfectly  wild  specimen.  The  marmot  is  a 
creature  of  low  intelligence,  a  natural  result,  perhaps, 
of  so  much  of  its  life  being  spent  in  a  burrow,  and  so 
much  of  its  time  being  drowsed  away,  free  from  that 


HIBERNATION  AND  ALLIED   STATES  IN   ANIMALS      83 

struggle  for  existence  which  has  apparently  been  so 
great  a  factor  in  all  kinds  of  development. 

On  account  of  the  destructive  power  of  its  teeth  it 
became  necessary  to  have  a  cage  constructed  of  strong 
wire,  with  a  suitable  movable  bottom,  essential  for 
cleanliness. 

My  specimen  would  eat  fruits,  such  roots  as  turnips 
and  carrots,  bread,  biscuits,  etc.  But  he  became 
very  fond  of  porridge  with  a  little  milk,  and  when 
he  was  disposing  of  this,  his  smacking  could  be 
heard  all  over  the  house.  It  seemed  to  agree  with  him 
perfectly. 

The  object  of  my  investigations  being  to  ascertain 
not  only  the  nature  of  the  winter  sleep,  but  the  char- 
acter of  its  variations  under  a  changing  environment, 
especially  as  regards  temperature  and  meteorological 
conditions  generally,  I  kept  the  animal  in  different 
rooms  of  the  houses  in  which  I  lived  successively 
during  the  creature's  lifetime,  and  also  in  different 
parts  of  an  outhouse  in  which  my  dogs,  fowls,  etc., 
lived. 

It  would  take  up  too  much  space  and  prove  rather 
wearisome  to  attempt  to  reproduce  here  the  records 
which  I  have  kept  in  detail.  It  will  be  both  more 
practicable  and  more  profitable  to  give  the  general 
results  of  studies  on  this  one  specimen  for  the  four 
years  during  which  he  lived,  and  then  refer  to  the  un- 
expected result  of  the  study  of  another  specimen  during 
the  past  winter. 

I  think  the  following  life-periods  were  recognisable 
in  the  specimen  I  had  under  observation : 

(1)  A  period  characterised  by  either  drowsiness  or 
sleep  or  profound  torpor,  lasting  from  about  November 
to  April. 

(2)  A    period    of    perfect  wakefulness  immediately 
following,  during  which  the  animal  was  emaciated,  in 


84  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

poor  coat,  and  with  a  general  low  vital  capital,  lasting 
for  some  weeks. 

(3)  A  period  of  improving  condition,  with  good  health 
and  a  desire  to  get  free,  which  latter  was  also  noticeable 
in  the  preceding  period. 

(4)  A  period  of  maximum  weight  and  vigour,  with 
perfect  coat  and  an  abundance  of  fatty  tissue. 

But  little  need  be  said  about  any  of  these  life-periods 
except  the  first.  During  the  second  the  emaciation  in- 
creased rapidly  at  first  on  waking,  and  was  equally 
marked  by  voracious  feeding.  The  meaning  of  this  will 
be  referred  to  later.  It  is  plain  that  the  organism 
entered  on  its  long  period  of  diminished  vitality  with  a 
large  stock  of  reserve  material,  and  it  is  equally  clear 
that  this  was  drawn  upon  to  the  full. 

I  now  turn  to  the  peculiarities  of  the  sleeping  or 
torpid  condition.  I  have  characterised  the  first  period 
as  one  of  drowsiness,  or  sleep,  or  torpor,  because  there 
are  sub-divisions  of  the  first  period  during  which  the 
animal  was  found  in  a  condition  that  was  characterised 
by  drowsiness  and  no  more ;  again  it  was  plainly  only 
sleeping,  while  again  it  was  as  profoundly  torpid  as  it 
ever  became.  The  period  of  most  profound  sleep  was 
never  reached  all  of  a  sudden,  but  was  preceded  by  the 
two  states  referred  to  above.  Moreover,  as  the  depth  of 
winter  approached  the  sleep  became  more  profound, 
and  the  reverse  with  the  approach  of  spring,  so  that  we 
might  represent  the  depth  of  the  sleep  by  a  rising 
followed  by  a  falling  curve  with  a  rather  long,  flattened 
top.  During  the  whole  of  the  first  period  the  animal 
nestled  in  the  straw,  with  which  he  was  always  provided, 
and  when  he  was  most  profoundly  unconscious  but 
little  of  him  could  be  seen,  often  so  completely  was  he 
covered. 

Another  important  matter :  The  amount  of  food  con- 
sumed was  directly  proportional  to  the  depth  of  his 


HIBERNATION  AND   ALLIED   STATES  IN  ANIMALS      85 

sleep.  Not  only  did  he  eat  less  frequently,  as  a  matter 
of  course,  but  the  quantity  taken  at  one  time  was  less. 
Occasionally,  when  fully  hibernating,  he  would  awake  to 
fall  asleep  again,  merely  after  gathering  the  straw  about 
him  a  little  closer,  and  not  eat  at  all.  His  cage  always 
being  supplied  with  food,  there  was  no  doubt  about  his 
ability  to  provide  himself  when  so  inclined. 

His  excretions  were  also  in  proportion  to  the  amount 
of  food  consumed,  and  especially  to  the  depth  of  the 
sleep.  The  less  he  ate,  and  particularly  the  more  pro- 
foundly he  slept,  the  less  were  his  evacuations  when  he 
awoke.  He  never  befouled  his  bed,  but  always  left  it  to 
void  urine  and  faeces. 

During  the  period  of  mere  drowsiness  the  animal 
would  be  awakened  by  a  gentle  rustling  against  its  cage, 
and  even  when  asleep,  a  noise,  etc.,  would  always  arouse 
it,  but  when  in  a  torpid  condition  it  could  not  be  thus 
aroused,  but  might  be  handled  without  being  brought  to 
the  natural  condition,  though  handling  and  much  less 
disturbance  always  caused  movement,  a  phenomenon  to 
be  discussed  later. 

In  the  spring  of  1891  my  Woodchuck  came  out  of  his 
winter  sleep  in  a  very  emaciated  condition,  and  this,  as 
usual,  increasing  after  his  awakening,  he  was  in  a  doubt- 
ful state;  but  the  case  was  soon  decided  against  the 
animal  in  consequence  of  my  servant  having  left  him 
for  some  time  fully  exposed  to  the  sun's  rays.  An 
autopsy  revealed  the  fact  that  the  animal  (a  male)  was 
the  subject  of  tuberculosis  of  the  lungs,  though  possibly 
but  for  this  exposure  he  might  have  lasted  another 
year. 

Through  the  kindness  of  Mr  K.  F.  Eorke,  an  under- 
graduate in  medicine  of  M'Gill  University,  I  became 
possessed  of  two  specimens  of  the  Marmot  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  summer  of  1891.  One  of  these  was  very 
large  and  in  fine  condition,  and  his  escape  soon  after 


86  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

arrival  has  been  a  frequent  subject  of  regret  by  me,  as  I 
hoped  to  be  able  not  only  to  continue  the  observations, 
but  to  make  them  comparative,  as  it  was  my  intention 
to  keep  both  under  the  same  conditions — in  fact,  in  the 
same  cage.  But  the  curious  part  remains  to  be  told. 
Though  I  kept  the  remaining  Woodchuck  under  exactly 
the  same  conditions  as  the  animal  I  had  had  so  long,  he 
did  not  hibernate  for  an  hour  the  whole  winter,  though 
he  drowsed  and  slept  enough. 

It  has  been  generally  considered  that  the  hibernating 
conditions  of  animals  was  dependent  above  all  else  on 
the  temperature  of  the  surrounding  atmosphere.  My 
experiments  in  bats  seemed  to  warrant  this  conclusion, 
for  whenever  the  temperature  reached  the  neighbour- 
hood of  45°  F.  to  40°  F.,  the  other  conditions  being 
favourable,  my  specimens  began  to  hibernate.  It  was 
also  true  that  my  Woodchuck  was  in  the  deepest  sleep 
during  mid-winter  when  the  cold  is  greatest.  Whether 
a  bat  could  be  put  into  a  state  of  torpor  during  summer 
by  exposing  it  to  a  lowered  temperature,  I  do  not  know. 
However,  Marshall  Hall  maintained  that  the  diurnal 
sleep  of  the  bat  ("  diurnation ")  was  exactly  the  same 
phenomenon  as  the  winter  sleep.  The  same  writer 
maintained  that  hibernating  bats  always  awoke  when 
the  temperature  fell  below  freezing  point,  and  his 
observations  showed  that  the  temperature  of  the 
animals  was  always  a  few  degrees  above  that  of  the 
surrounding  atmosphere.  Probably  Hall  is  correct  in 
the  main,  for  my  bats,  when  the  temperature  sank 
during  the  night  much  below  freezing,  were  always 
found  dead  in  the  morning.  Whether  they  awoke  first, 
or  simply  passed  from  torpor  to  death,  I  do  not  know. 

However,  for  the  Marmot,  I  can  assert  positively  that 
this  rule  does  not  hold,  for  frequently  the  water  was 
found  frozen  in  the  apa  rtment  in  which  the  animal  was 
kept,  yet  he  was  undisturbed.  Nevertheless,  I  came  to 


HIBERNATION  AND  ALLIED   STATES  IN  ANIMALS      8*7 

the  conclusion  that  this  exposure  is  injurious  to  a 
hibernating  animal,  and  that  it  had  something  to  do 
with  the  poor  condition  in  which  my  specimen  was 
found  in  the  spring  of  the  year  in  which  he  died. 

Before  discussing  the  true  nature  of  the  phenomena 
of  the  winter  sleep,  I  call  attention  to  certain  cases  of 
allied  nature.  & 

Such  frequent  references  as  we  find  to  the  hibernation 
of  swallows  deserve  some  consideration. 

It  is  also  stated  that  in  Scotland  sheep  have  been 
found  alive  after  being  buried  for  weeks  beneath  the 
snow ;  and  Dr  Frank  Miller  of  Burlington,  Vt.,  reported, 
when  a  student,  to  the  Society  for  the  Study  of  Com- 
parative Psychology  at  Montreal,  that  hogs  had  been 
found  alive  after  being  accidentally  imprisoned  below 
the  surface  for  several  weeks  longer  than  it  seemed 
possible  for  them  to  survive  under  ordinary  circum- 
stances, so  that  it  would  appear  they  had  been  in  a 
condition  of  hibernation  or  some  such  state. 

Turning  to  the  human  subject :  We  have  all  read  of 
instances  in  man  of  "  suspended  animation,"  or  "  trance." 
The  case  of  Fakirs  in  India  having  been  buried  alive, 
exhumed,  and  resuscitated  after  months,  is  attested  by 
such  evidence  as  it  is  difficult  to  set  aside,  however 
hard  to  credit. 

Mr  D.  W.  Eoss,  a  student  in  medicine  of  M'Gill 
University,  has  gathered  the  facts  of  a  peculiar  case  in 
so  far  as  they  are  now  obtainable.  The  individual  in 
question  was  known  as  "Sleepy  Joe,"  a  farmer  by 
occupation.  He  was  married  and  had  several  children, 
one  of  whom,  a  girl,  had  the  same  drowsy  appearance 
as  her  father.  This  man  would  sleep  almost  constantly 
for  several  weeks,  awakening,  however,  to  attend  to 
Nature's  calls  and  to  take  food.  He  would  at  times 
awake  more  fully  and  then  set  to  work,  whether  it  was 
day  or  night,  and  almost  incessantly  labour  as  if  to 


88  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

make  up  for  lost  time.  He  was  rather  weak  mentally, 
but  appeared  ashamed  of  his  sleepy  tendencies,  which 
seemed  to  get  worse  as  he  grew  older.  He  lived  to  be 
about  sixty  years  of  age. 

Dr  Aug.  Eobinson  of  Annapolis  has  kindly  given 
the  following  notes  of  a  unique  case  : 

"  John  T ,  son  of  a  pensioner,  is  now  about  sixty- 
two  years  old.  When  he  was  twenty-eight  years  of  age 
his  father  committed  suicide  by  cutting  his  throat  in  a 
fit  of  insanity.  Before  his  father's  death  John  had 
shown  symptoms  of  melancholia,  He  would  sit  by  the 
hour  over  his  father's  bench  (cobbler's)  laughing  and 
talking  to  himself,  and  working  himself  into  a  frenzy, 
fighting  imaginary  foes,  and  going  into  immoderate  fits 
of  laughter. 

"  I  cannot  ascertain,  after  much  enquiry,  how  long 
this  condition  of  things  lasted  before  he  lapsed  into  his 
present  state,  but  this  much  is  certain,  for  the  last 
thirty  years  or  more,  about  the  end  of  September  every 
year,  he  falls  into  a  deep  sleep  or.  stupor,  and,  as  his 
present  condition  is  a  fair  sample  of  the  manner  in 
which  his  winters  have  been  passed  since  he  was  first 
attacked,  I  will  describe  him  as  I  found  him  on  Monday, 
10th  December  1888,  and  repeat  what  I  was  told  by 
his  friends  regarding  his  attack  this  autumn : 

"  About  31st  August  Jack  went  to  bed  after  eating  his 
evening  meal,  as  usual,  without  exhibiting  anything  out 
of  the  common  in  his  manner  or  otherwise,  or  giving 
any  reason  for  the  supposition  that  he  was  out  of  sorts 
in  any  way.  On  the  following  morning  he  did  not  get 
up,  nor  has  he  shown  any  more  vitality  than  any  sleep- 
ing man  up  to  this  time.  His  sleep  is  very  quiet 
without  any  stertor,  indeed  it  is  as  calm  as  that  of  a 
child.  Twice  in  every  twenty-four  hours  he  is  taken 
up,  a  person  supporting  him  on  each  side,  holding  a 
vessel  for  his  convenience.  He  knows  enough  to 


HIBEKNATION  AND  ALLIED   STATES  IN  ANIMALS      89 

voluntarily  empty  his  bladder.  The  urine  is  high  in 
colour  and  scant  in  quantity.  About  eleven  o'clock 
every  night  he  seems  to  show  rather  more  life  than  at 
any  other  time,  and  advantage  is  taken  of  this  to  pour 
a  little  thin  oatmeal  gruel,  beef -tea,  or  soup  down  his 
throat,  he  opening  his  lips  to  allow  them  to  do  so,  and 
slowly  swallowing  it.  He  only  takes  a  very  little  each 
time,  and,  if  urged  to  take  more,  simply  keeps  his 
mouth  shut.  About  once  in  every  thirty  days,  not 
exactly  at  regular  intervals,  during  the  evening  gener- 
ally, the  family  will  hear  a  peculiar  chattering  noise. 
They  never  take  any  notice  of  it,  for  they  know  it  is 
Jack  going  down  to  the  outhouse  to  empty  his  bowels. 
He  then  returns  to  his  bed  and  sleeps.  He  knows 
enough  to  throw  a  quilt  over  his  shoulders  at  such 
times. 

"  At  the  time  of  my  visit  I  found  his  temperature  96? 
F.,  pulse  60,  regular,  though  not  strong ;  respirations 
14,  easy  and  quiet,  skin  cool.  A  pin  stuck  into  his 
arm  caused  no  apparent  change,  and  he  might  be 
pinched  until  black  and  blue  without  its  causing  him 
the  slightest  uneasiness. 

"  My  first  visit  to  Jack  was  about  twenty  years  ago, 
when  I  first  came  to  live  and  practise  in  the  vicinity, 
and  it  came  about  in  this  way.  Of  course  there  was  a 
talk  about  the  new  doctor,  and  what  he  could  do,  so  I 
was  called  to  see  this  queer  case.  I  got  all  the  par- 
ticulars from  the  friends  and  neighbours,  and  what 
means  had  been  tried  by  other  doctors,  and  then  I 
promised  to  try  what  I  could  do.  On  the  following 
day  I  went  again,  accompanied  by  my  brother,  also  a 
physician.  We  took  with  us  a  good  galvanic  battery. 
One  of  the  handles  was  placed  in  each  hand  and  bound 
closely  to  the  fingers  with  wet  bandages.  We  then 
put  on  the  full  power  of  the  instrument.  Poor  old 
Jack  was  out  of  bed  in  an  instant,  and  I  shall  never 


90  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

forget  his  look  of  astonishment  and  horror  as  he  yelled 
out:  *  Damnation!  What's  that?'  I  can  also  well 
remember  my  own  feelings  of  satisfaction  and  com- 
placency when  the  *  natives '  congratulated  me  on  my 
success  in  this,  my  first  case.  I  walked  off,  as  if  saying 
to  myself :  '  I  knew  I  could  do  it.'  Well,  Jack  remained 
awake  about  three  days,  and  then  I  got  a  message  that 
my  patient  was  off  again.  I  went  up  and  tried  the 
battery  a  second  time,  with  only  the  effect,  however,  of 
making  him  open  his  eyes  and  grunt  out  "  Eh  ? "  in  a 
querulous  manner,  and  after  looking  about  him  for  a 
half  hour  or  so,  he  lapsed  into  his  former  condition. 
Next  day  I  again  tried  the  battery  but  without  the 
slightest  effect,  so  I  gave  it  up  as  a  hard  case. 

"  This  is  all  I  have  to  say  about  this  singular  object, 
except  that,  of  course,  he  becomes  very  thin  and 
haggard  before  he  rouses  finally  in  the  spring,  and  he 
does  not  fairly  waken  until  the  end  of  May  or  first  of 
June.  During  the  summer  months  Jack  does  exactly 
the  work  he  is  told  to  do,  but  he  must  be  told  over 
again  every  day ;  for  example,  if  desired  to  bring  the 
cows  from  pasture  he  will  do  so,  but  will  not  milk 
them  until  told  to,  nor  will  he  turn  them  a-field  again 
without  being  desired.  He  does  not  seem  to  know 
what  to  do  next,  even  though  the  same  routine  is 
carried  out  every  day.  An  exception,  however,  must 
be  made  in  one  respect.  He  does  not  require  to  be  told 
when  dinner  or  tea-time  arrives,  and  is  blessed  with  an 
excellent  appetite.  Jack  is  always  ready  for  his  food, 
and  is  not  particular  about  quality,  so  that  quantity  is 
there.  He  will  talk  quite  rationally  on  any  subject 
when  spoken  to,  and  recollects  distinctly  most  of  the 
incidents  of  his  childhood.  He  will  hold  animated 
confab  with  the  cows,  dogs,  trees,  wheelbarrow,  or  any 
other  object  which  happens  to  be  in  his  way,  and  may 
be  noticed  sometimes  lecturing  a  tree  for  some  time, 


HIBERNATION  AND  ALLIED  gTATES  IN  ANIMALS      91 

breaking  out  occasionally  into  uproarious  fits  of 
laughter." 

When  visiting,  in  1890,  Dr  C.  K.  Clarke,  Super- 
intendent of  the  Asylum  for  Insane  in  Kingston,  he 
happened  to  make  reference  to  a  peculiar  individual 
known  to  a  few  as  "  the  sleeping  woman." 

It  at  once  occurred  to  me  that  her  case  would  prove 
a  study  of  great  value  if  it  could  be  carried  out,  and  I 
suggested  to  Dr  Clarke  that  he  endeavour  to  supple- 
ment such  facts  as  we  could  learn,  and  such  observations 
as  we  were  able  to  make  by  a  joint  visit  to  the  subject 
of  this  peculiar  condition  by  a  careful  study  of  the  case. 
He  succeeded  much  beyond  my  expectations  in  doing 
this,  and  has  published  the  results  of  his  investigations 
in  the  American  Journal  of  Insanity  for  October  1891, 
under  the  title,  "  A  Case  of  Lethargy,"  and  from  that 
paper  I  extract  the  principal  facts  in  regard  to  this  case, 
which  is  so  remarkable  that  it  may  be  well  to  state 
them  somewhat  fully. 

"  Several  seasons  ago  I  heard  that  there  was  a  patient 
who  had  been  in  a  trance  for  years,  and  from  time  to 
time  word  was  brought  to  the  effect  that  the  condition 
still  persisted,  and  that  all  efforts  to  rouse  the  woman 
were  without  result. 

"  A  little  more  than  a  year  ago  I  obtained  permission 
to  visit  the  patient,  but  was  not  allowed  to  make  any 
extended  examination. 

"  On  entering  the  room  I  found  a  thin,  old  woman  in 
bed,  apparently  fast  asleep.  Her  respirations  were 
irregular  and  varied  much  during  the  visit  (lasting 
almost  half  an  hour),  running  all  the  way  from  24  to 
44  per  minute.  The  pulse  quickened  in  a  marked  way 
during  my  stay,  and  ran  up  from  about  80  to  120. 
The  woman  had  her  eyes  half  closed,  and  to  all  appear- 
ances was  oblivious  to  everything  that  was  going  on. 

"  The  nurse  gave  many  details  regarding  the  patient, 


92  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

and  made  a  number  of  statements,  some  of  which  I 
shall  repeat  in  a  few  minutes.  Many  of  these  state- 
ments we  were  able  to  verify  at  a  subsequent  period ; 
others  were  undoubtedly  inaccurate.  Before  going  into 
details  regarding  the  every-day  life  of  this  case  of 
lethargy  as  we  saw  it,  perhaps  it  would  be  well  to  give 
a  brief  outline  of  the  history  of  the  patient.  Unfortu- 
nately, it  has  not  been  found  possible  to  get  as  many 
important  facts  as  could  be  desired  in  connection  with 
this  history,  but  great  care  has  been  taken  to  eliminate 
all  doubtful  points.  The  patient  was  born  in  1820  or 
1821,  and  when  she  came  under  observation  was  almost 
sixty-nine  years  of  age.  The  neurotic  history  was 
pronounced  on  '  both  sides  of  the  house ' ;  evidence 
going  to  show  that  her  father  had  suffered  from  melan- 
cholia. A  reliable  person  states  that  the  father  died 
from  '  softening  of  the  brain ' — possibly  general  paresis. 
The  patient's  mother  was  subject  (a  member  of  the 
family  states)  to  attacks  of  partial  loss  of  reason,  which 
could  only  be  cured  by  change  of  air  and  surroundings. 
It  has  not  been  possible  to  get  an  accurate  account  of 
these  attacks  of  '  partial  loss  of  reason.'  The  patient's 
early  history  is  not  well  known,  but  it  has  been  stated 
on  good  authority  that  she  was  (:  peculiar,"  and  in  child- 
hood complained  of  some  head  trouble  that  caused  her 
to  keep  her  hair  cropped  short.  She  was  married  when 
very  young,  probably  when  seventeen  or  eighteen  years 
of  age,  as  she  was  but  twenty-one  when  her  third  child 
was  born.  Three  years  after  the  birth  of  her  last  child 
she  was  noticed  to  undergo  a  change  in  disposition  and 
acted  '  strangely.'  She  could  not  be  depended  on,  was 
untruthful  and  whimsical,  and  worried  a  great  deal 
about  trifles." 

It  is  from  a  subsequent  period  (three  years  later) 
that  the  history  of  this  case  must  be  dated. 

The  son,  the  youngest   child,  says:    "The  first  re- 


HIBEKNATION  AND  ALLIED   STATES  IN  ANIMALS      93 

collection  that  I  have  of  mother's  sickness  was  when  I 
was  six  years  old.  My  little  sister  had  died,  and  I  was 
just  recovering  from  an  attack  of  scarlet  fever  when 
she  was  taken  down.  I  think  the  attack  was  caused 
by  grief  over  sister's  death,  and  over-exertion  and  want 
of  rest.  I  do  not  remember  how  long  she  was  sick  at 
that  time,  but  I  recollect  that  her  left  side  was  com- 
pletely paralysed,  and  that  after  a  time  a  strong  liniment 
was  used  which  partially  removed  the  paralysis,  and 
when  she  went  to  the  country  for  several  weeks  she 
came  back  well. 

"  The  second  time  that  she  was  taken  sick  was  when 
I  was  twelve  years  old.  She  felt  poorly  for  some  time, 
and  was  then  taken  with  fits,  or  convulsions,  which 
lasted  for,  I  think,  three  days,  having  sometimes  four  or 
five  in .  an  hour.  She  was  confined  to  her  bed  for,  I 
think,  about  two  years,  in  very  much  the  same  condition 
as  at  present.  I  do  not  know  what  curative  means 
were  employed,  but  she  gradually  improved  a  little, 
and  was  again  sent  out  into  the  country,  where  she 
seemed  to  recover. 

"  She  enjoyed  pretty  good  health  for  about  six  years, 
but  had  to  be  very  careful ;  she  never  drank  tea  or 
coffee,  and  always  had  to  have  the  hair  on  the  back  of 
her  head  cut  short. 

"  About  this  time  her  father  was  taken  sick,  and  we 
moved  into  his  house  to  take  care  of  him.  This  seemed 
to  affect  mother,  and  after  a  short  time  she  was  again 
taken  with  fits,  and  soon  went  into  her  former  condition. 

"  During  this  sickness,  which  lasted  about  two  years, 
she  used  to  sit  up  a  great  part  of  the  time,  and  appeared 
to  be  perfectly  conscious.  She  knew  father  and  those 
who  waited  on  her,  used  to  call  me  her  boy,  but 
appeared  to  be  in  a  sort  of  stupor  most  of  the  time. 
She  was  again  sent  into  the  country  and  came  back 
well. 


94  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

"  Then  ensued  a  brief  interval  of  about  two  years, 
during  which  time  she  was  in  fair  health,  but  was  again 
taken  down  as  before,  and  was  sick  for  nearly  seven 
years.  During  part  of  this  time  she  was  very  low,  and 
we  watched  day  after  day  at  her  bedside,  expecting 
each  day  would  be  the  last;  but  she  again  rallied, 
and  gradually  her  bodily  strength  and  reason  returned 
to  her. 

"  She  was  well  for  about  five  years,  when  she  seemed 
to  be  taken  with  a  low  fever  and  gradually  went  down 
to  her  present  condition." 

Such  is  the  son's  account  of  the  case,  and  from  it  we 
learn  that  the  history  of  nervous  trouble  dates  back  at 
least  forty  years,  and  the  inference  is  that  the  first 
indications  of  lethargy  then  made  their  appearance. 

The  details  of  the  conditions  that  existed  during  the 
different  attacks  are  almost  entirely  wanting,  and  it  is 
unfortunate  that  we  are  left  almost  completely  in  the 
dark  regarding  the  nature  of  the  convulsive  seizures 
that  occurred.  Subsequent  history  would  lead  us  to 
believe  that  these  were,  in  all  probability,  hystero- 
epileptic  in  origin. 

About  the  year  1862  the  patient  fell  into  a  state  of 
lethargy  that  lasted  for  seven  years  or  more.  The  con- 
dition was  not  one  of  complete  unconsciousness,  and 
although  the  woman  appeared  to  sleep  almost  con- 
tinually, occasionally  she  would  wake  up  for  a  minute 
or  so  at  a  time,  and  converse  in  a  rational  manner. 

It  is  not  possible  to  make  more  than  general  state- 
ments in  regard  to  these  attacks,  but  it  is  beyond  doubt 
that  the  conditions  were  not  identical  with  those  that 
characterised  the  last  attack.  Evidently  the  condition 
of  lethargy  was  not  so  profound. 

The  announcement  of  the  death  of  a  warm  friend 
was  the  immediate  cause  of  her  awakening.  The 
return  to  even  an  approach  to  a  normal  condition  of 


HIBERNATION  AND   ALLIED   STATES  IN  ANIMALS      95 

health  was  a  very  gradual  process.  .  She  was  lachrymose 
and  childish  for  some  time,  and  could  not  use  her  limbs 
properly  for  months — in  fact,  had  to  learn  to  walk  again. 

During  the  period  of  wakefulness  that  now  ensued — 
seven  years  or  more — the  patient,  to  a  certain  extent, 
interested  herself  in  the  affairs  of  every-day  life.  She 
went  about  the  house,  etc.,  but  was  very  quiet  and 
did  not  seem  able  to  concentrate  her  mind  on  any- 
thing. Her  memory  was  markedly  deficient,  and  she 
seemed  astonished  to  find  people  and  places  changed, 
and  could  not  realise  the  fact  that  she  had  been  asleep 
for  such  a  long  time. 

When  waking  up  from  her  long  sleep,  one  of  the  first 
requests  made  was  for  beer,  and  strange  to  say,  the 
same  want  was  expressed  many  years  after  when 
arousing  from  a  subsequent  attack. 

About  thirteen  years  ago  the  patient  gradually  passed 
into  the  condition  in  which  we  saw  her.  At  first  she 
spoke  occasionally,  but  in  a  childish  manner,  and  often 
made  a  request  for  meat  and  potatoes,  invariably  using 
the  following  words :  "  Meat  and  potatoes,  a  plate  all 
full  up  to  the  top  ! " 

Before  giving  the  details  of  the  case  as  we  saw  it,  it 
will  be  well  to  repeat,  in  a  general  way,  the  statements 
made  by  the  nurses  who  had  the  care  of  the  patient 
before  she  came  to  the  asylum :  She  seems  to  exercise 
a  certain  amount  of  discrimination  regarding  her  food, 
and  will  eat  enormously  or  not  at  all,  and  when  her 
appetite  is  not  lost,  does  not  seem  to  know  when  she 
has  had  enough.  Her  diet  is  made  up  of  minced  meat, 
potatoes,  soft  toast,  milk,  etc.,  and  she  is  particularly 
fond  of  meat  and  potatoes — in  fact,  will  not  touch 
anything  until  meat  and  potatoes  are  provided.  She 
does  not  like  sweet  things.  When  not  suffering  from 
diarrhoea,  eats  three  times  a  day.  Eats  as  much  as  any 
healthy,  active  woman  of  her  age.  Objects  to  nauseous 


96  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

drugs,  and  endeavours  to  push  the  spoon  away  with  her 
left  hand. 

The  attitude  during  the  day  is  quite  different  from 
that  assumed  at  night,  and  the  patient  undoubtedly 
sleeps  more  soundly  at  night  than  during  the  day.  In 
the  daytime  her  legs  are  extended,  at  night,  drawn  up. 
In  the  daytime  she  is  put  either  on  her  back  or  right 
side,  at  night  on  her  left  side,  and  remains  in  this 
position  until  morning  without  moving — in  fact,  cannot 
roll  over.  She  will  not  settle  down  for  the  night  until 
a  drink  of  cold  water  is  given.  In  the  daytime,  some- 
times for  an  hour  or  so  at  a  time,  appears  to  be  nearer 
a  condition  of  consciousness  than  at  any  other  time. 
This  occurs  generally  after  breakfast,  but  she  has  to  be 
roused  for  her  meals. 

When  heavy  coverlets  are  put  on  the  bed  she 
attempts  to  shove  the  blankets  off  with  her  left  hand, 
and  likes  to  be  very  lightly  covered.  The  eyes  are 
three  parts  closed  during  the  day  and  completely  closed 
at  night.  The  face  sometimes  becomes  flushed.  She 
never  speaks,  and,  in  fact,  has  spoken  but  once  in  eleven 
years  or  more,  and  that  was  quite  recently  (1890), 
when  she  said :  "  I  am  not  asleep."  Her  appetite  has 
been  better  since  she  has  been  in  the  long  sleep  than  it 
was  before,  and  she  eats  things  she  would  not  touch 
when  awake.  At  least  once  during  the  present  attack 
she  has,  unassisted,  got  out  of  bed,  and  there  is  reason 
to  believe  she  has  done  the  same  thing  several  times, 
but  not  within  three  years,  as  her  physical  condition 
renders  it  impossible.  Several  times  the  nurse  fancied 
the  patient  was  moving  about  the  room  at  night,  but 
for  some  time  could  not  actually  prove  that  such  was 
the  case.  At  last,  however,  a  fall  was  heard  in  the 
middle  of  the  night,  and  the  patient  was  found  lying 
fast  asleep  at  the  bottom  of  the  stairs,  down  which  she 
had  fallen. 


HIBEKNATION  AND   ALLIED   STATES   IN  ANIMALS      97 

During  the  present  attack  she  has  fasted  on  several 
occasions,  and  once  went  fifteen  days  without  food. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  the  nurses  were  speaking 
of  the  last  attack,  and  at  a  time  when  the  patient  had 
been  in  a  state  of  lethargy  for  more  than  eleven  years. 

In  September  1890,  I  saw  the  patient  with  Dr 
Clarke.  This  was  my  first,  but  Dr  Clarke's  second 
visit.  We  found  the  patient,  an  old  woman,  in  bed. 
She  was  lying  on  her  back  with  her  eyes  half  closed. 
Her  face,  when  we  first  entered,  was  somewhat  flushed 
and  respiration  rapid.  When  respirations  were  closely 
observed  it  was  noticed  that  they  were  most  irregular, 
and  at  times  ceased  for  several  moments.  They 
averaged  22  per  minute.  Pulse  was  104,  fairly  strong 
and  regular,  arteries  almost  free  from  rigidity.  Axillary 
temperature  98f°.  The  nurse  stated  that  ordinarily 
the  patient's  bowels  moved  but  once  in  three  days,  but 
latterly  she  had  developed  a  tendency  to  diarrhoea,  and 
since  that  had  evinced  a  sense  of  discomfort  until  the 
bowels  were  relieved.  This  sense  of  discomfort  was 
evinced  by  whining  like  a  dog.  Ordinarily  she  would 
not  give  any  indication  that  she  wished  to  relieve  her- 
self, but  the  presence  of  the  bed-pan  would  excite  the 
reflexes.  She  does  not  soil  the  bed.  The  statement  of 
the  nurse  in  regard  to  the  amount  of  urine  passed 
every  day  was,  that  a  little  more  than  half  a  pint  would 
be  a  fair  average. 

A  physical  examination  of  the  patient  was  made. 
The  left  foot  was  drawn  as  if  there  were  a  contracted 
Tendo-Achillis ;  right  foot  drawn  down  but  not  in  such 
a  marked  manner  as  the  left.  Marked  rigidity  of  the 
right  knee  and  leg ;  left  leg  and  knee  not  rigid.  Eight 
ankle  easily  moved;  left  rigid.  Patellar  reflexes 
absent.  Tickling  the  soles  of  the  feet  did  not  cause 
any  evidence  of  sensibility.  Each  great  toe  was  drawn 
under  the  second  toe,  this  condition  being  especially 

G 


98  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

marked  in  the  left  foot.  When  the  soles  of  the  feet 
were  tickled  it  was  thought  that  the  respirations  were 
slightly  deepened,  but  on  account  of  the  irregularity  of 
the  breathing  it  was  difficult  to  determine  this  point, 
and  it  was  considered  undecided.  Patient's  hair  grey ; 
nails  healthy  and  not  abnormally  brittle.  Facial 
reflexes  better  than  reflexes  in  any  other  part  of  the 
body.  Orbicular  reflexes  good  even  with  air ;  at  the 
same  time  it  was  noticed  that  flies  crawling  over  the 
face  did  not  excite  the  reflexes.  Pupils  responsive  to 
light.  Small  bedsores  found  on  hips,  and  evidence  of 
former  deep-seated  bedsores  plainly  visible. 

While  we  were  present  the  nurse  endeavoured  to 
arouse  the  patient,  and  tried  to  get  her  to  take  some 
food.  A  feeble  protest  was  made  (whining),  the 
patient  winked  for  a  few  moments,  and  then  went  off 
to  sleep  again.  Bread  was  put  in  her  mouth,  but 
remained  there  without  any  effort  being  made  to 
swallow. 

On  9th  October  1890,  the  patient  came  under  Dr 
Clarke's  care,  and  a  series  of  observations  of  the  most 
complete  character  was  made. 

The  patient,  a  thin  old  woman,  apparently  not 
weighing  more  than  sixty  pounds,  was  carried  into  the 
infirmary  from  the  ambulance,  and  placed  in  bed.  She 
was  asleep,  and  did  not  seem  disturbed  by  the  jolting  to 
which  she  had  been  subjected.  Her  temperature  was 
97  J",  pulse  107,  and  respirations  20.  Efforts  were  made 
to  arouse  her,  but  without  avail.  Friends  stated  that 
she  had  been  in  her  present  state  of  lethargy  for  more 
than  eleven  years. 

Her  eyes  were  half  closed,  and  it  was  found  almost 
impossible  to  get  her  to  swallow  anything.  Next 
morning  her  temperature  was  about  normal;  pulse  117, 
respiration  18 ;  still  asleep  with  the  eyes  half  closed, 
as  she  remained  nearly  the  whole  time  she  lived. 


HIBEBNATION  AND  ALLIED   STATES  IN  ANIMALS   '  99 

She  was  under  observation  from  October  1890  until 
February  1891,  when  she  died.  In  these  four  months 
she  was  closely  watched,  and  until  the  last  week  of  her 
life  gave  little  indication  that  she  had  the  slightest 
knowledge  of  the  fact  that  she  lived. 

She  would  remain  in  any  position  in  which  she  was 
placed  in  bed,  and  if  not  fed  would  undoubtedly  have 
died  without  making  any  sign  that  she  required  or 
desired  food.  Her  temperature  was  almost  invariably 
sub-normal,  sometimes  falling  to  95°,  although  occasion- 
ally it  would  rise  to  nearly  102*  without  any  cause 
that  could  be  determined.  Her  appetite  was  capricious, 
although  she  undoubtedly  had  decided  likes  and 
dislikes  in  regard  to  food.  She  preferred  beef  and 
potatoes  to  anything  else.  The  process  of  eating  was 
very  slow,  and  sometimes  it  would  be  more  than  an 
hour  before  she  could  finish  a  meal.  When  she  drank 
anything,  milk  was  evidently  preferred.  She  was  very 
clean  in  her  personal  habits,  and  never  soiled  the  bed. 

The  quantity  of  urine  passed  was  very  small,  not- 
averaging  more  than  one-seventh  of  normal.  The 
bowels  moved  but  seldom,  sometimes  only  once  in  six 
or  seven  days.  It  was  possible  to  rouse  her  for  a 
moment  or  so  to  the  extent  of  making  her  open  her  eyes, 
but  beyond  this  she  would  give  no  indication  of  con- 
sciousness, and  went  to  sleep  again  immediately.  Her 
legs  were  nearly  always  drawn  up,  although  when  the 
patient  was  admitted  it  was  stated  that  she  always 
straightened  her  legs  at  night.  Her  feet  were  almost 
invariably  very  cold,  and  the  hands  sometimes  so. 
Occasionally  her  eyelids  would  tremble  and  quiver, 
just  as  they  will  in  a  patient  suffering  from  hysteria. 
Generally,  when  much  bothered,  she  would  for  a  few 
moments  make  a  sort  of  whining  protest. 

The  facial  expression  was  quiet,  almost  .death-like, 
under  ordinary  circumstances,  but  sometimes,  when 


100  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

undergoing  examination,  an  expression  suggestive  of 
pain  would  appear ;  at  the  same  time  it  is  questionable 
if  pain  was  really  experienced,  as  the  heart  and  respira- 
tions did  not  show  the  least  disturbance. 

A  large  amount  of  food  for  one  so  frail  was 
consumed  in  a  day,  although  on  some  occasions  the 
appetite  was  completely  lost.  Sometimes,  when 
suddenly  disturbed,  she  would  start  nervously,  and 
her  hands  would  tremble.  Trained  Nurse  Osborne, 
who  was  with  her  very  constantly,  seemed  to  think 
that  there  were  times  when  she  was  nearer  a  condition 
of  consciousness  than  at  others,  and  as  this  statement 
was  also  made  by  the  former  nurses,  possibly  it  is 
correct. 

Occasionally  she  would  push  down  the  bedclothes 
with  her  hands,  and  the  history  of  the  case  would  go  to 
show  that  heavy  coverings  were  always  objectionable. 

Nearly  every  day  she  was  propped  up  in  a  chair  for 
half  an  hour.  This  did  not  seem  to  have  any  effect  on 
her  general  condition. 

The  account  of  her  last  days  are  interesting : 
Early  in  February  1891,  a  marked  change  took  place  in 
the  patient's  condition.  Diarrhoea  developed,  and  the 
woman  was  evidently  suffering  pain.  On  the  4th  of 
February  she  was  undoubtedly  awake,  and  in  the 
evening  spoke  in  a  hoarse  whisper,  asking  for  a  sour 
drink.  This  was  the  second  time  she  had  spoken  in 
thirteen  years.  On  the  morning  of  the  5th  of  February 
again  asked  for  a  drink,  yawned  twice,  and  fell  asleep 
again.  In  the  afternoon  was  again  awake,  fed  herself 
in  an  awkward  way,  and  in  the  evening  spoke  again  in 
a  natural  manner.  I  sent  for  her  friends,  and  they 
endeavoured  to  get  her  to  take  notice  of  them,  but  she 
did  not  appear  to  know  them,  and  went  to  sleep  as 
usual.  The  trained  nurse's  notes  for  the  next  few  days 
are  as  follows  : — 


HIBERNATION  AND   ALLIED   STATES  IN   ANIMALS 


m 


February  6th. — Will  feed  herself  with  bread  or  any- 
thing dry.  Hand  shakes  too  much  to  use  a  cup  or 
spoon.  Will  ask  for  anything  she  wants,  but  will  not 
speak  at  any  other  time.  -Always  uses  her  left  hand. 

February  7th. — I  was  called  in  about  4  A.M.,  and 
found  her  lying  on  the  floor ;  she  would  not  speak,  but 
from  all  appearance  no  one  had  touched  her ;  she  had 
evidently  got  out  of  bed  herself.  At  9.30  A.M., 
she  was  cold  and  very  white  looking;  about  fifteen 
minutes  later  her  face  was  flushed  and  moist,  body  warm, 
hands,  knees,  and  feet  cold.  This  soon  passed  off, 
leaving  her  in  her  former  condition.  Temperature  was 
95f°  lower  than  at  8  A.M.  This  afternoon  asked  for  a 
sour  drink  and  a  big  cake.  Spoke  hurriedly,  but  quite 
loudly  and  distinctly.  Kissed  the  nurse  twice  when 
asked  to  do  so. 

February  9th. — Has  not  been  well  at  all  to-day. 
Moaned  when  disturbed.  Has  eaten  scarcely  anything, 
but  has  taken  more  milk  than  usual.  Has  had  slight 
diarrhcea  since  last  Tuesday  ;  worse  to-day. 

February  llth. — Asked  frequently  for  drinks  to-day, 
and  last  night  said  her  throat  was  burning.  Does  not 
appear  to  recognise  any  of  her  friends,  nor  to  realise 
that  she  is  among  strangers.  So  long  as  her  wants 
are  attended  to  she  seems  quite  unconscious  of  any- 
thing else  —  not  exactly  unconscious  either,  but  as 
though  she  took  no  interest  in  what  went  on  around 
her. 

February  12th. — Is  better  this  morning;  had  no 
diarrhoea  during  the  night.  Has  asked  three  times 
for  something  to  eat,  which  sounds  like  meat,  but  when 
I  get  it  for  her  she  won't  eat  it. 

February  13th. — Diarrhoea  much  worse  to-day. 

February  15th. — Diarrhoea  somewhat  better. 

On  the  16th  she  was  slightly  better,  and  asked  for 
beer  and  cocoa,  and  said  she  felt  as  if  she  were  burning 


102  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

up.     From  this  time  she  steadily  grew  worse,  and  died 
on  the  26th. 

Dr  Ruttan,  Professor  of  Chemistry,  M'Gill  Univer- 
sity, made  elaborate  analyses  of  urine  sent  to  Montreal 
from  time  to  time,  and  without  offering  any  detailed 
statement  here,  I  may  say  that  the  general  conclu- 
sions arrived  at  were  as  follows :  The  whole  of  the 
urine  passed  in  six  days  was  sent,  and  he  says  the  total 
amount,  if  representing  six  days'  urine,  is  about  one- 
seventh  the  normal.  This  contains  all  constituents 
in  about  normal  quantities  in  relation  to  the  volume 
of  the  urine,  except  the  phosphoric  acid,  which  is  about 
one-third  what  it  should  be. 


I. — AUTOPSY. 

Inspectio  Cadaveri. 

Nutrition  poor ;  body  much  emaciated  ;  apparent  age 
65  to  70 ;  weight  about  50 ;  rigor  mortis  complete. 
A.  M.  staining  on  hands  and  feet;  P.  M.  staining  on 
back  of  trunk ;  bedsores  on  sacrum,  tip  and  ball  of 
great  toe;  feet  and  ankles  oedematous;  legs  flexed  on 
thighs  by  contracted  tendons;  no  teeth,  and  sockets 
much  absorbed. 

Sectio    Cadaveri. 

HEAD. — Scalp  thin  and  easily  dissected ;  calvarium 
of  average  thickness  ;  tables  thin,  however,  diploe  being 
in  excess;  dura  mater  not  adherent  to  the  skull, 
slightly  opaque  at  vertex  ;  one  slight  adhesion  to  brain 
at  margin  of  longitudinal  fissure ;  ante-mortem  clots  in 
longitudinal  and  lateral  sinuses,  the  clots  in  the  lateral 
sinuses  being  particularly  well  organised. 

BRAIN. — The  brain  weighed  about  35  oz. ;  micro- 
scopically, it  was  healthy  in  appearance — in  fact,  in 


HIBERNATION  AND  ALLIED   STATES  IN   ANIMALS    103 

asylum  experience,  I  have  never  seen  as  healthy  a 
brain  in  the  post-mortem  room. 

Convolutions  well  marked  and  sulci  deep;  grey 
matter  abundant ;  brain  substance  firm  ;  ventricles  free 
from  evidence  of  disease;  brain  not  examined  micro- 
scopically. 

THORAX. — Sub-sternal  adhesions.  Emphysema  of 
cellular  tissue  beneath  sternum ;  cartilages  not  ossified. 

HEART. — Small — weight  3f  oz.  Pericardial  fluid  in 
average  quantity ;  blood  in  great  veins,  and  right 
auricle  fluid ;  walls  of  right  auricle  and  ventricle  un- 
usually thin ;  valves  normal ;  small  post-mortem  clot 
in  left  ventricle ;  walls  of  left  ventricle  hypertrophied ; 
left  auricle  normal;  valves  of  left  side  normal. 

AORTA. — Ascending  aorta  dilated  into  a  fusiform 
aneurism  ;  capacity  about  twice  that  of  normal ;  arterial 
coats  not  thinner  than  normal;  no  evidence  of  atheroma; 
no  pressure  effects  noticed  ;  varicose  veins  on  posterior 
walls  of  the  heart;  abdominal  aorta  atheromatous ; 
ante -mortem  clots  in  abundance. 

LUNGS. — Eight :  Very  adherent  at  apex  ;  small  ad- 
hesions all  over  surface  of  lung;  apex,  a  mass  of 
tubercle — in  fact,  tubercles  were  found  scattered  through- 
out the  whole  of  the  lungs,  and  in  the  apex  a  small 
cavity  existed ;  hypostatic  congestion  marked.  Left : 
In  this  lung  a  certain  amount  of  hypostatic  congestion 
was  apparent,  and  an  occasional  tubercle  was  found, 
otherwise  the  lung  was  normal;  cord-like  adhesions 
of  pleura  on  surface. 

ABDOMEN. — Liver  adherent  to  chest  walls  and  dia- 
phragm ;  whole  capsule  torn  off  in  taking  out,  and 
remained  attached  to  diaphragm  and  abdominal  wall; 
weight,  20  oz. ;  three  vertical  furrows  present  on 
anterior  surface  of  right  lobe;  these  furrows  were 
about  2  inches  in  length,  centre  one  distinctly  marked ; 
nutmeg  condition  present. 


104  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

STOMACH. — Large ;  about  2  inches  from  pyloric  orifice 
was  a  constricted  portion. 

This  condition  was  undoubtedly  not  the  result  of 
any  inflammatory  action,  but  the  natural  shape  of  the 
stomach,  giving  rise  to  an  appearance  suggestive  of  a 
rudimentary  second  stomach. 

INTESTINES. — Small ;  evidences  of  an  old  peritonitis ; 
adhesions  everywhere ;  there  were  several  constricted 
portions  from  3  to  6  inches  long;  in  no  place  was 
there  complete  stricture,  and  no  scars  were  present; 
above  the  constricted  portions  of  the  intestine  was 
much  distended. 

CAECUM. — Walls  much  thickened  and  much  venous 
congestion ;  inner  surface  dark  red  and  roughened  ; 
had  appearance  of  numerous  varicose  veins  in  wall. 

ASCENDING  COLON.  —  One  portion,  constricted,  and 
part  preceding  dilated;  transverse  colon,  normal; 
descending,  slightly  dilated. 

KIDNEYS. — Right :  very  small,  about  2  J  inches  long ; 
apparently  normal.  Left :  about  1  inch  longer  than 
right ;  apparently  normal ;  capsules  non-adherent. 

We  may  sum  up  the  case  by  saying  that,  in  the 
subject  under  consideration,  we  have  a  woman  inherit- 
ing from  parents  an  intensely  neurotic  organisation,  in 
consequence  of  which  she  showed  many  indications  of 
an  ill-balanced  and  unstable  nature,  culminating  in 
various  vital  crises,  including  periods  of  stupor.  In 
fact,  this  woman  seems  to  have  spent  nearly  one-third 
of  her  whole  existence  in  an  unconscious  condition, 
being  then  a  purely  vegetative  organism. 

At  one  period  of  her  life  she  was  a  veritable  Eip 
Van  Winkle,  finally  sinking  into  a  long  lethargy  from 
which  there  was  only  a  brief  consciousness  prior  to  the 
final  stoppage  of  the  vital  mechanism.  But  it  is  to  be 
noted  that  this  curious  condition  was  not  the  result  of 
any  gross  lesion  of  the  brain,  but  of  hidden  molecular 


HIBERNATION  AND   ALLIED   STATES  IN  ANIMALS    105 

peculiarities,  which  renders  the  case,  to  my  mind,  all 
the  more  instructive  when  considered  in  connection 
with  all  those  states  I  am  now  considering. 


II. 


1  propose  now  to  discuss  the  real  nature  of  hiber- 
nation and  kindred  states. 

In  the  paper  on  Squirrels  read  before  the  Society  in 
1887,  I  said,  speaking  of  hibernation :  "  I  think  it  is 
very  probable  that,  when  the  matter  has  been  fully 
investigated,  all  degrees  of  cessation  of  functional 
activity  will  be  found  represented,  from  the  daily 
normal  sleep  of  man  and  other  animals  to  the  lowest 
degree  of  activity  consistent  with  the  actual  mainten- 
ance of  life." 

As  a  matter  of  fact  this  is  the  conclusion  toward 
which  all  my  investigations  since  that  time  have 
tended.  Though  some  maintain  that  in  true  hiber- 
nation there  is  cessation  of  respiration,  it  would  be 
hard  to  prove  this,  for,  as  Hall  showed,  the  circulation 
continues,  and  the  very  beating  of  the  heart  against  the 
lungs  displaces  a  certain  amount  of  air,  and  in  any 
event  we  cannot  leave  out  of  account  diffusion  of  gases, 
which,  in  all  cases  of  animals  with  lungs,  plays  an 
essential  part  in  the  process  of  respiration. 

It  would  be  interesting  to  know  the  condition  of  the 
heart  in  a  hibernating  frog  or  turtle ;  but  in  such 
creatures  the  skin,  as  also  probably  in  snakes,  has  a 
respiratory  function.  Live  frogs  will  stay  for  hours  at 
the  bottom  of  a  tank  in  winter,  provided  fresh  water 
is  flowing  over  them  constantly.  In  fact,  winter  frogs 
kept  under  these  conditions  respire  largely  by  the  skin. 
So  far  as  the  bat  is  concerned,  it  is  difficult  to  observe 
any  respiratory  movements ;  but  in  the  Woodchuck  I 


106  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

never  fail  to  notice  them  at  considerable  intervals, 
say  once  in  five  to  nine  minutes,  even  when  hibernating 
most  profoundly.  The  respirations  were  peculiar. 
Sometimes  one  deep  inspiration,  preceded  by  a  sudden 
relaxation  of  the  enlarged  chest,  would  be  succeeded  by 
a  long  pause  ;  again  there  would  be  a  series  of  very 
slight  respiratory  movements.  It  was  always  possible 
by  the  respirations  alone  to  predict  when  the  animal 
was  approaching  the  waking  state. 

The  awakening  was  never  sudden  but  gradual,  often 
extending  over  hours.  I  have  seen  something  like  this, 
though  less  remarkable,  in  the  bat.  This  is  no  doubt 
protective  to  the  vital  machinery,  for  when  Hall  main- 
tained that  bats,  suddenly  awakened  from  the  hiber- 
nating condition,  died  speedily,  he  was,  in  the  main,  if 
not  entirely,  correct. 

A  brief  consideration  of  natural  daily  sleep  will  throw 
light  on  winter  sleep,  etc. 

Sleep  is  favoured  by  moderate  exhaustion,  a  good 
condition  of  nutrition,  and  the  absence  of  all  sorts  of 
peripheral  stimuli. 

The  case  of  the  youth  having  but  one  good  eye  and 
one  hearing  ear,  who  could  be  put  to  sleep  by  closing 
these  up,  is  very  instructive.  This  lad  did  not,  however, 
continue  to  sleep  indefinitely,  but  awoke  after  a  number 
of  hours,  showing  that  though  there  are  certain 
conditions  in  the  environment  that  favour  sleep,  the 
latter  is  essentially  a  condition  of  the  central  nervous 
system,  and  dependent  on  laws  governing  the  latter. 
This  view  makes  it  clear  that  sleep  is  naturally  a 
nocturnal  condition  for  most  animals,  owing,  no  doubt, 
to  the  evolution  of  life  in  relation  always  to  the 
environment.  The  fact  is,  we  cannot  conceive  of  life 
except  in,  and  by  reason  of,  in  a  sense,  some  environ- 
ment. The  change  of  the  seasons,  day  and  night,  and 
all  the  periodicities  of  the  inorganic  world  have,  as  a 


HIBERNATION   AND   ALLIED   STATES   IN  ANIMALS    107 

natural  consequence,  stamped  themselves  on  living 
things,  plants  as  well  as  animals.  Sleep,  then,  is  essen- 
tially a  rhythmic  diminution  of  the  activities  of  all  the 
tissues,  but  especially  of  that  one  which  controls  all 
others,  the  nervous.  Ehythm  seems  to  be  at  the  basis 
of  all  things  organic  and  inorganic,  but  has  not  been 
enough  considered  in  our  explanation  of  living  cells. 
It  was  long  the  custom  to  explain  sleep  by  anaemia  of 
the  brain,  whereas  the  very  anaemia  was  due  to  a  con- 
traction of  the  blood-vessels  of  the  part,  accompanied 
by  the  diminution  of  the  heart-beat,  both  of  which  are 
periodical  and  dependent  on  the  rhythm  of  the  nervous 
system  itself.  Of  course,  temporary  anaemia  of  the 
brain  favours  sleep,  though  it  is  not  the  essential 
cause.  As  a  natural  consequence  of  the  decline  in  the 
activity  of  the  great  controller  of  the  cell  activities 
(metabolism),  i.e.  the  nervous  centres,  it  is  found  that 
all  the  functions  of  the  body,  without  exception  perhaps, 
are  diminished  during  sleep.  Marshall  Hall  and  others 
since  his  time  have  shown  that  the  gaseous  interchange 
in  a  hibernating  animal  is  greatly  lessened.  This 
diminished  metabolism  explains  why  the  animal  does 
not  require  to  eat,  or  but  little.  It  explains  the  dimin- 
ished excretions,  etc.,  etc. 

This  being  understood,  it  is  not  surprising  that 
hibernating  animals  may  be  kept  under  water  for  long 
periods  as  is  the  case  with  newly-born  mammals,  as 
kittens  and  puppies,  whose  vital  machinery  as  yet 
works  very  slowly,  which  are,  in  fact,  in  a  condition  but 
slightly  more  advanced  physiologically  than  the  uterine, 
which  is  a  sort  of  reptilian  pre-natal  state,  as  regards 
the  circulation,  respiration,  etc. 

As  the  metabolism  of  reptiles  and  amphibians  is  of  a 
much  slower  kind  than  that  of  mammals,  it  is  not 
surprising  that  their  winter  sleep  is  more  profound ; 
but  it  is  to  be  observed  that  the  change  from  their 


108  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

most  active  to  their  most  sluggish  condition  is  not 
probably  relatively  greater  than  in  the  case  of 
mammals. 

All  forms  of  profound  winter  (or  summer)  sleep  are 
protective,  both  of  the  individual  and  the  species. 
Manifestly  amphibia,  reptilia,  and  other  groups  of 
the  animal  kingdom  must  have  utterly  vanished  from 
the  face  of  the  earth  but  for  such  a  power  to  adapt  to 
conditions.  Probably  many  individuals,  if  not  some 
entire  groups,  have,  through^  more  or  less  complete  failure 
to  adapt,  disappeared  before  this  habit  of  the  nervous 
system  and  of  the  whole  organism  became  perfect 
enough. 

It  is  equally  clear  from  the  investigation  given  to 
the  subject  that  hibernation,  like  daily  sleep,  is  not  a 
fixed  and  rigid  thing,  but  just  as  it  has  been  the  result 
of  adaptation  to  the  environment,  by  virtue  of  the 
plasticity  of  function  of  all  living  cells,  so  the  power  to 
modify  still  remains. 

It  is  possible  to  conceive  of  its  being  lost  in  certain 
groups  of  animals — indeed  this  phase  of  the  subject  has 
been  as  much  impressed  on  me  as  the  other.  Sleep, 
hibernation,  and  all  such  states  are  not  invariable,  but 
to  a  certain  extent,  so  dependent  on  the  surroundings 
that — as  in  the  case  of  my  last  marmot,  also  of  turtles 
and  frogs  kept  within  doors — there  may  be  an  omission 
of  that  condition  which  is  habitual  under  the  normal 
environment  of  the  animal. 

I  would  like  to  emphasise  these  facts,  for  they  seem 
to  me  to  throw  great  light  on  the  evolution  of  function 
at  all  events,  and  on  those  changes  which  may  become 
so  great  as  to  lead,  we  can  hardly  say  to  what,  in  the 
lapse  of  time. 

For  years  I  have  had  turtles,  and  especially  frogs, 
under  observation  during  the  winter  months.  Our 
frogs  for  laboratory  use  at  M'Grill  University  are  kept 


HIBERNATION  AND  ALLIED   STATES  IN  ANIMALS    109 

in  a  tank  in  which  the  water  is  being  continually 
renewed  by  a  slow  stream.  They  are  not  fed.  None 
of  the  frogs  seem  to  pass  into  a  condition  of  true 
hibernation,  but  they  descend  to  the  bottom  of  the 
tank  and  remain  quiet,  as  if  asleep  or  partially  torpid, 
as,  indeed,  I  know  they  often  are  for  hours.  In  this 
is  an  interesting  modification  of  that  most  profound 
torpor  which  they  experience  when  buried  in  the  mud 
of  ponds. 

Even  in  the  winter  life  of  a  creature  like  the  marmot 
we  may  have  all  degrees  of  drowsiness  or  torpor,  as  I 
have  shown,  and  it  is  not  to  be  forgotten  that  our 
own  daily  sleep  has  its  degrees,  so  that  the  night's 
sleep  may  be  represented  by  a  curve  with  a  sharp 
rise  and  very  gradual  fall,  which  may,  as  we  all  know, 
be  greatly  modified  by  circumstances. 

The  same  laws  seem  to  apply  to  all  the  known  cases 
of  human  lethargy,  hibernation,  sleep,  or  whatever  the 
state  may  be  called.  In  the  case  of  the  buried  sheep 
and  hogs  the  protective  value  of  the  condition  is 
evident,  as  also  in  the  case  of  the  lethargic  woman. 
This  individual,  with  so  ill-balanced  and  unstaple  a 
constitution,  would  probably  have  been  carried  off  by 
some  form  of  actual  disease  long  before,  had  she 
remained  awake.  She  could  exist  as  a  mere  vegeta- 
tive organism,  but  not  as  a  normal  human  being  in  the 
ordinary  struggle  for  existence.  One  thing  which  has 
been  much  impressed  upon  me  by  my  studies  of  this 
whole  subject,  is  the  varying  degrees  of  sensitiveness  to 
temperature  and  meteorological  conditions  in  different 
groups  of  animals  and  different  individuals  of  the  same 
group.  The  bat  as  compared  with  the  marmot,  for 
example,  may  be  worked  like  a  machine  by  varying  the 
temperature.  On  the  contrary,  the  degree  to  which  the 
woodchuck  is  independent  of  temperature  was  a 
surprise  to  me  after  my  experience  with  the  bat.  But 


110  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

the  woodchuck  answered  like  a  barometer  to  predict 
storms.  In  fact,  I  am  satisfied  that  many  wild  animals 
have  a  delicate  perception  of  meteorological  conditions 
which  man  has  not,  and  which,  in  a  sense,  makes  them 
wiser  than  our  science,  and  wiser  than  they  know,  for 
they  act  reflexly,  as  it  were.  Often  my  marmot  would 
be  heard  in  the  night  scraping  the  straw  about  him 
prior  to  a  storm  that  did  not  reach  us  for  many 
hours  after. 

Marshall  Hall  laid  it  down  as  one  of  his  principal 
conclusions  that  in  hibernating  animals  "muscular 
irritability  "  is  increased. 

If  the  term  reflex  be  substituted  for  muscular,  I 
believe  the  conclusion  is  correct.  I  found,  as  a  result 
of  scores  of  trials,  that  when  the  marmot  was  hibernat- 
ing, he  was  more  sensitive  to  slight  stimuli,  such  as 
blowing  on  the  hairs  of  the  skin,  than  when  merely 
sleeping.  Plainly  this  was  not  a  case  of  muscular 
irritability  at  all,  but  it  does  indicate  that  the  reflex 
mechanism  is  more  excitable,  as  it  is,  for  example,  in  an 
animal  under  the  influence  of  strychnine,  and  as  it  is 
in  animals  from  which  a  portion  of  the  cerebrum  has 
been  removed. 

It  may  be  because  the  unconsciousness  is  so  pro- 
found, i.e.  the  brain  so  far  from  its  ordinary  functional 
activity,  for  it  is  well-established  that  the  brain  in- 
hibits the  spinal  cord  normally,  to  a  certain  extent. 

Apparently  this  increased  reflex  excitability  must  be 
to  the  advantage  of  a  hibernating  animal,  for  the  cord 
and  medulla  oblongata  are  the  parts  of  the  nervous 
centres  that  especially  preside  over  the  functions  of 
organic  life,  which  are  necessary  to  maintain  a  mere 
animal  existence. 

All  problems  of  a  biological  kind  must  ultimately  be 
referred  to  cells,  and  so  with  this  of  hibernation. 
Indeed,  it  would  seem  that  unicellular  animals  pass 


HIBERNATION  AND  ALLIED   STATES  IN  ANIMALS    111 

into  a  condition  which  is  related  to  that  of  hibernation. 
The  so-called  encysted  stage  of  protozoa  is  perhaps 
analogous  and  similarly  preservative  of  the  individual 
and  the  species. 

The  study  of  a  subject  like  the  present  one  gives  rise 
to  many  questions.  Can  the  molecular  machinery  of 
life  entirely  stop,  and  yet  be  set  in  motion  again  ?  We 
know  that  cold-blooded  animals  may  be  frozen  and 
completely  restored  to  a  natural  condition.  This  and 
the  encysted  condition  of  protozoa  are  suggestive  of 
such  a  possibility. 

Yet  in  insects  a  condition  of  perfect  quiescence  is 
accompanied  by  the  most  wonderful  changes.  The 
worm-like  caterpillar  becomes  within  its  cocoon  the 
butterfly,  with  locomotive  powers  immeasurably  greater. 

For  myself,  the  more  I  study  biological  problems,  the 
less  am  I  inclined  to  subscribe  to  rigid  formulae  of 
being.  The  study  of  a  single  group  of  animals  from  a 
physiological  point  of  view,  much  less  that  of  a  single 
individual,  does  not  suffice  to  enable  one  to  lay  down 
laws  that  will  apply  to  similar  processes  in  other  groups 
of  animals  except  in  the  most  tentative  way.  I  can 
never  forget  the  lesson  of  my  marmot  that  did  not 
hibernate  at  all,  and  what  modification  of  present 
views  more  extended  study  of  this  subject  of  sleep  in 
all  its  phases  will  produce,  it  is  impossible  to  say. 

All  my  own  studies  have  greatly  impressed  me  with 
the  plasticity  of  living  things,  their  power  to  adapt  to 
altered  environments,  and,  if  I  might  suggest  one  of 
the  great  changes  that  is  likely  to  come  over  the 
biology  of  the  future,  it  is  a  recognition  of  the  above 
fact;  so  that  we  will  cease  to  generalise  so  widely 
from  such  narrow  data,  or  rather,  perhaps,  we  will  be 
ready  to  believe  that  phenomena,  very  different  from 
those  we  know,  may  be  possible  in  the  realm  of  living 
things. 


112  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

It  has  often  occurred  to  me  that  possibly,  if  such 
consideration  were  kept  in  mind,  we  should  not  be  so 
disposed  to  assume  that  the  conditions  under  which 
life  now  exists  are  precisely  those  under  which  it 
always  did  exist. 


PAKT  III. 

THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG 
ANIMALS  AND  ITS  PHYSICAL  COR- 
RELATION. 

I.— THE  DOG. 
Introduction. 

FOR  mind  and  body  alike  the  past  determines  the 
present  in  no  small  degree ;  hence  it  follows  that  the 
more  perfectly  the  history  of  each  step  in  the  develop- 
ment of  mind  is  traced,  the  better  will  the  final  product, 
the  mature,  or  relatively  fully-developed  mind,  be 
understood.  Anatomical  researches  were  long  con- 
ducted on  the  bodies  of  animals  before  the  light  thrown 
on  structure  by  embryology  cleared  up  the  obscurities 
which  of  necessity  hung  about  parts,  the  origin  and 
early  development  of  which  were  unknown. 

Comparative  anatomy  had  already  done  something 
to  give  increased  significance  to  anatomy  as  a  whole, 
but  it  was  only  by  tracing  the  animal  body  back  to  its 
primitive  germ  cells,  following  these  cells  in  their 
development  into  tissues  and  organs  by  the  naked  eye 
and  with  the  microscope,  comparing  these  changes  in 
one  animal  with  corresponding  ones  in  another,  and 
indeed  in  plants,  and  interpreting  them  all  in  the  light 
of  evolution,  that  the  present  status  of  biojogy  has  been 
reached. 

Psychology  is  as  yet  in  no  such  position ;   but  it 


H 


113 


114  ANIMAL   INTELLIGENCE 

must  be  equally  clear  to  those  who,  guided  by  facts 
alone,  untrammelled  by  tradition  and  dogma  of  every 
kind,  compare  the  pyschic  status  of  the  young  with 
that  of  the  mature  animal,  that  psychogenesis  is  a  fact ; 
that  the  mind  does  unfold,  evolve,  develop  equally  with 
the  body.  And  as  with  the  body  so  with  the  mind, 
each  stage  in  this  development  can  only  be  under- 
stood in  the  light  of  all  the  previous  stages. 

This  truth  is  apparently  as  yet  only  dimly  compre- 
hended, for,  till  recently,  studies  on  psychic  history, 
development  or  psychogenesis  have  been  all  but  un- 
known, and  as  yet,  even  in  the  case  of  man,  are  very 
few  and  confessedly  imperfect. 

But  just  as  we  have  an  ontogeny  and  phylogeny, 
just  as  the  anatomy,  physiology,  and  pathology  of 
man  are  clearer  from  comparative  studies  on  creatures 
lower  in  the  scale,  so  must  it  be  in  regard  to  man's 
psychology. 

It  follows,  then,  that  all  researches  in  comparative 
psychology  must  be  as  welcome  for  the  general  science 
of  mind,  and  the  special  study  of  human  psychology, 
as  those  in  comparative  anatomy  are  to  anatomy  in 
general,  or  the  anatomy  of  man  in  particular. 

Till  very  recently  animals  below  man  seem  to  have 
been  almost  wholly  neglected  or  misunderstood  in  all 
that  pertains  to  their  psychic  nature,  one  very  obvious 
result  of  which  has  been  the  inability  to  connect  the 
psychic  states  of  man  with  others  of  similar,  yet  often 
simpler,  character  in  lower  animals,  not  to  mention 
the  impossibility  of  a  science  of  mind  in  general,  or 
a  true  understanding  of  the  psychic  side  of  man's 
nature.  Studies  in  infant  psychology  are  of  compara- 
tively recent  date,  few  in  number,  and  in  most  instances 
very  incomplete;  while,  as  regards  animals  lower  in 
the  scale,  such  investigations  are  still  more  imperfect. 

The  relations  of  mind  and  body  in  both  health  and 


THE  PSYCHIC   DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS    115 

disease  have  been  made  the  subject  of  considerable 
speculation  and  some  valuable  research,  but  the 
subject  is  vast,  and  will  unfold  but  slowly  till  our 
knowledge  of  many  things  is  greatly  increased. 

Much  depends  on  the  philosophical  or  scientific 
attitude  of  the  worker,  as  to  the  views  he  holds  on  such 
a  subject,  or  the  interpretations  he  puts  on  observed 
facts. 

Nevertheless,  to  him  who  can  lay  aside  prejudices — 
sanctioned,  it  may  be,  by  ages  of  belief — it  is  possible 
to  see  that  old  interpretations  fail,  and  that  problems 
of  the  mind,  which  the  world  has  either  ignored  or 
grappled  with  in  vain,  must  be  attacked  from  new 
standpoints. 

History  and  Objects  of  the  Present  Research. 

In  consequence  of  the  foregoing  and  many  other 
convictions,  some  ten  years  since, -I  suggested  to  the 
students  of  the  Faculty  of  Comparative  Medicine  and 
Veterinary  Science  of  M'Gill  University  the  desirability 
of  forming  a  Society  for  the  study  of  Comparative 
Psychology,  more  especially  for  the  study  of  the  psychic 
nature  of  those  animals  with  which  they  would  be 
professionally  most  brought  into  contact.  During  this 
period,  more  than  formerly,  I  myself  bred  and  reared 
large  numbers  of  the  smaller  of  the  domestic  animals 
and  pets  with  a  view  of  understanding  them  in  all 
their  varied  aspects. 

The  longer,  however,  I  continued  my  studies,  the 
more  I  became  convinced  that,  as  in  every  other  case 
to  succeed  best,  one  must  begin  at  the  beginning. 
Accordingly  I  have  for  a  few  years  kept  full,  and  I 
hope  accurate,  notes  of  the  development,  psychic  and 
physical,  of  individuals  belonging  to  several  different 
groups  of  the  above-mentioned  animals. 


116  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

My  purpose  may  be  stated  about  as  follows : — 

(1)  To  give  a  detailed  history  of  the  psychic  develop- 
ment up  to  a  certain  age  of  representatives  of  several 
animal  groups. 

(2)  To  compare  groups  and  individuals. 

(3)  To  correlate  the  psychical  and  physical — or,  at 
all  events,  to, make  some  attempt  to  connect,  in  time, 
the  psychic  and  physical  development. 

The  completion  of  this  work  will  even,  so  far  as 
I  am  able  to  accomplish  it,  take  a  considerable  time 
yet,  so  that  I  shall  be  obliged,  in  the  present  paper, 
to  confine  myself  to  one  group  of  animals,  viz.  dogs, 
of  which  I  have  made  a  study  during  the  greater  part 
of  my  life,  and  more  especially  within  the  past  ten 
years,  as  regards  their  psychic  nature  and  certain  other 
features. 

The  present  paper  will  be  founded  chiefly  on  the 
notes  or  diary  of  three  litters  of  puppies — two  of  the 
St  Bernard  and  one  of  the  Bedlington  terrier  breed. 

These  histories,  then,  will  concern,  it  will  be  observed, 
only  pure-bred  dogs,  as  I  have  not  as  yet  similar  notes 
on  mongrels.  As  the  dog  is,  after  the  monkey,  more 
like  man  psychically  than  any  other  animal,  I  hope 
to  make  some  comparisons  with  the  development  of 
the  young  human  being,  though  possibly  not  in  this 
paper. 

Inasmuch  as  the  diary  of  the  last  litter  of  St  Bernard 
puppies  studied  is  more  complete,  and  was  written  in 
the  light  of  my  past  experience,  I  regard  it  as  much  the 
most  valuable.  It  will  therefore  be  given  first  of  all,  as 
written  day  by  day,  with  only  a  few  verbal  alterations, 
from  which  each  reader  may  form  his  own  independent 
conclusions. 

This  I  purpose  to  follow  by  certain  remarks.  As  my 
work  on  the  brain  especially  is  not  yet  complete,  the 
physical  correlation  which  has  to  do  chiefly,  of  course 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS     117 

with  the  nervous  system,  will  be  less  fully  treated  than 
the  psychical  development. 

Diary. 

The  following  record  concerns  a  litter  of  pure-bred  St 
Bernard  puppies,  whelped  in  my  kennel  in  the  spring  of 
1894.  Both  sire  and  dam  were  of  excellent  breeding, 
and  the  pedigree,  for  many  generations,  was  known. 
The  dam  had  a  gestation  period  of  about  sixty-one  days, 
so  that  the  puppies  may  be  considered  to  have  been 
born  at  full  time,  and  they  were  certainly  very  strong 
and  active.  They  were  of  unusually  even  size,  and  with 
little  apparent  difference  as  to  vigour,  etc.  There  were 
seven  of  the  male  and  six  of  the  female  sex,  all  of 
which  were  not  preserved ;  for  some  time,  however, 
there  were  nine,  and  to  the  end  of  the  sixth  week 
seven  ;  after  that  six. 

The  dam  whelped  in  a  separate  compartment  of  the 
kennel  where  she  was  all  alone  and  free  from  dis- 
turbance. The  arrangement  to  meet  the  comfort  of  the 
dam  and  her  offspring,  which  I  will  term  the  pen,  was 
as  follows  :  On  a  floor,  slightly  raised  above  that  of  the 
kennel,  some  clean,  dry  straw  was  littered,  the  whole 
being  surrounded  by  a  board  enclosure  to  the  height  of 
about  1  foot.  This  pen  measured  about  3  by  3  feet. 
Care  was  taken  to  change  the  straw  on  the  floor,  while 
the  whole  kennel  was  well  lighted,  comfortably  warmed, 
and  properly  aired.  The  dam  was  given  the  best  of  care 
in  all  respects,  never  had  an  unfavourable  symptom 
during  or  after  whelping,  and  was  always  able  to  furnish 
her  offspring  with  abundance  of  good  milk.  For  many 
reasons  these  details  are  of  importance,  and  it  is 
necessary  to  state  them  in  order  that  the  record  may  be 
properly  appreciated.  Nearly  all  the  observations  for 
some  weeks  were  made  on  the  puppies  in  their  birth- 


118  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

place,  as  it  was  found  that  removal  therefrom  caused  so 
much  disturbance  that  observations  were  impossible  or 
valueless  except  to  illustrate  this  very  point,  important 
in  itself. 

I  have  limited  this  diary  to  the  first  sixty  days  of 
life,  as  nearly  all  the  most  important  phases  of  develop- 
ment show  themselves  within  this  period. 

1st  day. — Almost  as  soon  as  born  and  freed  from  the 
investing  placental  parts  by  the  dam,  the  puppies  cry 
out,  though  more  loudly  a  little  later,  crawl  slowly 
but  vigorously  enough  towards  the  teats  of  the  dam, 
and  at  once,  in  most  cases,  begin  to  suck.  It  is  noticed, 
however,  that  other  parts  are  sometimes  sucked  as  well 
as  the  teats.  They  huddle  together  and  get  between 
the  legs  of  the  dam,  and  where  the  hair  is  longest,  or 
where,  for  any  reason,  there  is  most  warmth,  when  not 
actually  nursing. 

Their  movements  are  very  slow.  Their  eyelids  are 
still  not  grown  apart  nor  their  ears  grown  open. 

Two  of  them  weighed  at  the  end  of  about  twenty-four 
hours  1  Ib.  2  oz.  and  1  Ib.  6  oz.  respectively. 

They  were  not  examined  as  to  reflexes  other  than 
sucking,  reaction  to  temperature,  etc. 

I  made,  on  the  first  day,  the  following  experiment : 
Placing  a  puppy  on  a  surface  above  the  floor,  it  was 
found  that,  when  it  reached  the  edge,  it  became  very 
uneasy,  spread  its  claws,  grasped,  etc.,  to  avoid  falling  off. 

On  this  and  later  days  they  cry  apparently  from  cold 
or  hunger,  or  when  removed  from  the  usual  environ- 
ment. 

4:th  day. — The  last  experiment  is  repeated  under 
slightly  varying  conditions.  A  tortoise  placed  under 
the  same  conditions  walked  or  tumbled  off.  On  this 
day  one  puppy  was  conveyed  to  my  laboratory,  wrapped 
up  warmly  in  a  blanket,  without  a  cry  or  other  sign  of 
discomfort,  this  journey  occupying  about  half  an  hour. 


THE   PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS     119 

5th  day. — When  pinched,  they  gave  evidence  si  feel- 
ing by  a  cry  and  movement,  though  the  latter  is  not  very 
marked.  When  the  hand  is  laid  over  them  in  a  caress- 
ing way  just  afterwards  they  are  at  once  quieted.  I 
regret  that  this  experiment  was  not  made  earlier. 

6th  day — Several  attempts  are  made  to  ascertain  if 
they  smell,  but  with  uncertain  results.  Warm  milk 
and  meat  were  held  near  their  noses.  I  think  there  was 
some  sniffing  as  a  result,  but  cannot  be  certain. 

7th  day. — Growing  well.  Two  specimens  (females) 
weigh  2  Ibs.  7  oz.  and  2  Ibs.  10  oz.  respectively.  Tested 
taste  by  the  use  of  milk  and  of  aloes.  A  finger  dipped 
in  milk  is  long  sucked.  When  aloes,  in  solution,  is 
placed  on  the  finger,  the  latter  is  not  long  sucked,  and 
the  facial  movements  indicate  disgust,  quite  the  reverse 
in  the  case  of  anything  sweet.  I  endeavoured  to  learn 
whether  they  knew  if  the  dam  were  near  them  by  smell, 
but  could  not  establish  it.  Up  to  this  date,  and  long 
after,  no  evidence  of  hearing  to  be  elicited. 

9th  day. — When  the  dam  is  out  of  the  pen,  as  she  now 
often  is,  the  puppies  suck  frequently  at  different  parts 
of  the  bodies  of  each  other.  They  will  suck  vigorously 
and  for  some  time  at  my  finger. 

It  is  easy  to  notice  now  great  progress  in  power  of 
movement,  especially  as  regards  the  forelimb,  mouth 
parts,  and  head  or  neck.  No  movement  of  the  tail  at 
all  yet  nor  for  some  time. 

Wth  day. — I  again  attempted  to  determine  whether 
they  could  smell,  in  the  same  manner  as  before,  but 
with  no  definite  results,  though  strongly  inclined  to 
believe  that  they  could  to  some  extent. 

When  the  dam,  after  an  absence,  steps  into  the  pen, 
two  or  three  may  happen  to  get  between  her  legs  after 
she  lies  down.  Presently  these  and  others  commence 
to  move  in  a  lively  way  in  all  directions,  and  before  long 
manage  to  reach  the  teats. 


120  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

11th  day. — Held  a  saucer  containing  warm  milk  under 
the  nose  of  one  of  the  puppies.  It  took  the  edge  of  the 
saucer  in  its  mouth.  Another  tried  to  drink  the  milk 
but  did  not  succeed,  its  eagerness  being  in  excess  of  its 
ability  to  co-ordinate  muscular  movements. 

The  evidence  of  smell  is  still  very  doubtful. 

It  is  now  easy  to  discern  that  some  are  larger  and  in 
better  physical  condition  than  others. 

13tk  day. — Last  night  it  was  observed  that  the  eyes 
began  to  open.  At  noon  to-day  they  are  not  fully  open, 
being  held  by  a  thin  sheet  of  tissue  at  the  outer  canthus  ; 
individual  differences  are  very  marked,  however,  in  this 
matter. 

Smell  is  tested  with  pieces  of  cold  cooked  veal,  warm 
fried  kidney,  and  cold  cooked  salted  herring.  All,  when 
these  were  put  near  the  nose,  licked  their  lips  and  moved 
forward  and  to  each  side,  following  the  objects  evidently 
by  the  nose. 

They  do  not  wink  when  the  whole  hand  or  a  finger 
is  moved  close  before  their  eyes,  but  when  the  eye- 
lashes are  touched,  or  all  but  touched,  they  do  wink. 
The  same  reflex  follows  where  the  lid  or  corner  is 
actually  touched. 

It  is  very  difficult  to  make  out  the  pupil,  and  I  was 
not  able  to  learn,  though  I  tried  day  after  day,  whether 
the  iris  contracted  to  light  or  not.  No  evidence  of  the 
existence  of  vision  could  be  obtained. 

A  feather  inserted  into  the  nostril  causes  the  head  to 
be  quickly  drawn  away. 

Considerable  twitching  of  the  muscles  is  noticed 
when  they  are  asleep. 

There  is  a  tendency  to  growling  in  sleep. 

All  the  movements  are  better  than  on  the  earlier 
days ;  and  for  the  first  time  slight  tail  movements  are 
noticed,  none  having  been  observed  during  the  period 
prior  to  opening  of  the  eyes. 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS     121 

When  a  puppy  is  removed  from  the  others  in  its  pen 
it  manifests  little  uneasiness,  but  quite  the  reverse  if 
placed  on  the  floor  of  the  kennel,  which  is  covered  with 
sawdust.  It  creeps  about  and  cries. 

14tk  day. — Unable  to  get  any  evidence  of  seeing 
objects,  as  no  sign  is  given  of  any  kind  when  various 
things  are  moved  before  the  eyes,  nor  is  the  winking 
reflex  any  better  established. 

They  seem,  as  before,  to  crawl  against  the  board  wall 
of  the  pen  without  noticing  it.  The  eyes  are  more 
fully  opened. 

The  loudest  noises,  including  the  sounding  of  a  shrill 
dog-whistle,  that  can  be  easily  heard  a  quarter  of  a 
mile  away,  causes  no  reflex  movements  of  the  ears,  or 
any  other  movement  to  indicate  the  possession  of 
hearing.  On  the  other  hand,  a  slight  breath  of  air 
causes  reflex  movements. 

To-day  I  made  a  definite  test  of  the  temperature 
sense.  A  glass  pestle  was  heated  till  it  could  not  be 
comfortably  borne  on  my  skin  anywhere,  when  its  end, 
about  half  an  inch  in  diameter,  was  placed  against  the 
paw  of  the  puppy,  which  was  rapidly  withdrawn.  A 
similar  reaction  followed  the  application  of  ice,  but  not 
so  quickly. 

They  now  begin  to  use  the  jaws  apart  from  sucking. 
They  stand  better  and  move  faster,  the  hind  limbs 
being,  however,  much  less  under  control  than  the  front  legs. 

I  suspected  that  the  beginning  of  play  appeared  to- 
day, but  was  not  quite  certain. 

The  tendency  to  growl  is  manifesting  itself  in  sleep. 

15^  day. — Eyelids  continue  to  grow  apart,  so  that 
more  of  the  globe  of  the  eye  can  be  seen.  They  seem 
to  wink  reflexly  a  shade  more  readily  under  the  former 
tests,  but  more  promptly  with  the  finger  close  to  the 
eye  than  with  the  entire  hand  moved  as  close  as  pos- 
sible before  the  face. 


122  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

One  puppy  appears  to  see,  or  be  trying  to  see,  the 
dam,  judging  by  the  position  of  the  head,  etc.,  but  it  is 
possible  that  it  is  partly  guided  by  smell.  I  allowed 
the  dam  to  stand  just  within  the  pen  at  some  little 
distance  (1  or  2  feet)  from  the  puppies  lying  asleep 
or  drowsy.  An  uneasiness  was  manifested  which  in- 
creased, and  was  probably  due  to  their  smelling  the  darn. 

On  bringing  some  sulphuric  ether  towards  the 
nostrils  of  one  of  the  puppies  there  was  decided  evi- 
dence of  dislike. 

When  they  are  lying  asleep,  touching  the  lips  gently 
causes  movements  of  the  muscles  of  the  face,  and 
especially  of  the  tongue — an  incipient  sucking,  in  fact. 
All  tests  of  hearing  give  negative  results.  It  is  im- 
possible to  introduce  a  small  probe  into  the  auditory 
canal — which  attempt  was  made  with  the  puppy  under 
ether  so  as  to  avoid  the  shaking  of  the  head,  which 
might  introduce  fallacies,  and  be  a  source  of  danger  to 
the  drum-head  of  the  ear. 

For  this  and  other  investigations  that  could  not  be 
well  carried  out  at  home,  one  of  the  puppies  was 
conveyed  to  the  Physiological  Laboratory  of  M'Gill 
University.  The  puppy,  having  sucked  to  its  satisfac- 
tion, was  tucked  up  warmly  in  a  basket,  and  conveyed 
for  twenty  minutes  in  a  street  car  without  the  slightest 
signs  of  uneasiness. 

Whenever  the  puppy  recovered  the  least  from  the 
ether  anaesthesia  it  showed  a  tendency  to  whine,  cry 
out,  move,  etc. 

To-day  there  was  undoubted  play  witnessed,  both 
paws  and  jaws  being  used,  especially  the  latter.  The 
second  subject  participated  to  a  less  degree.  There 
was  no  sucking  of  the  ear  or  other  part  of  the  body  in 
this  case,  as  had  often  happened  before,  when  the  mouth 
of  one  canine  casually  came  in  contact  with  the  ear, 
paw,  etc.,  of  another  puppy. 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS     123 

Wth  day. — Can  discover  little  advance  in  vision. 
The  eyes  are  still  more  fully  open. 

If  the  puppies  hear  at  all  it  is  only  in  the  faintest 
way. 

As  the  dam  stands  close  beside  the  pen,  when  the 
puppies  lie  drowsing,  they  soon  begin  to  move  the 
muscles  of  the  face,  raise  their  heads,  sniff  here  and 
there,  like  a  hunting  dog  catching  scent  of  game,  and 
feel  about,  as  it  were,  for  the  object  giving  the  scent. 
Presently  they  make,  almost  simultaneously,  quick 
movements  as  if  to  reach  some  object.  I  am  convinced 
that  all  this  is  from  smell  and  not  vision,  though  it 
would  be  difficult  to  prove  absolutely  that  sight  had 
nothing  to  do  with  it. 

When  the  dam  now  sits  on  her  haunches  the  puppies 
manage  to  reach  the  teats. 

They  will  still  suck  the  finger  when  put  into  the 
mouth,  but  for  a  much  shorter  period. 

17 'th  day. — Playing  more  common.  One  began  to 
play  with  the  foot  of  another,  but  soon  changed  to 
sucking  this  part. 

Slight  movements  of  the  tail  are  noticed  during  play 
at  times,  and  there  is  obvious  increase  in  walking 
power ;  muscular  co-ordinations  of  all  kinds  are  better 
made. 

When  a  beef  bone  is  held  within  half  an  inch  of  the 
nose  when  the  puppies  are  asleep,  the  movements  of 
tongue,  lips,  etc.,  before  referred  to  as  evidence  of 
smelly  take  place.  When  awake,  they  give  evidence 
of  smelling  cold  roast  beef  at  3  inches. 

When  the  dam  stands  at  the  end  of  the  pen,  some 
2  feet  from  the  puppies,  that  lie  in  about  its  centre, 
they  soon  begin  to  move  towards  her,  but  not  in  a 
straight  line,  as  they  would  if  they  were  guided  solely 
by  sight.  I  am  convinced  that  vision  is  very  im- 
perfect yet. 


124  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

The  ear-flaps  have,  for  a  eouple  of  days,  been  turned 
forward  instead  of  backward  as  at  birth,  but  tests  for 
hearing  give  but  uncertain  indications  as"  yet. 

By  touching,  in  a  certain  way,  either  the  outside  of 
the  flap  of  the  ear,  or  its  inside  and  adjacent  parts,  the 
scratching  reflex  is  excited  on  the  same  side.  Occasion- 
ally the  puppy  attempts  to  get  rid  of  the  irritation  by 
the  use  of  the  foreleg  of  the  same  side. 

Upon  suddenly  seizing  one  of  them  it  growls. 

The  winking  reflex  is  more  readily  obtained,  and  the 
latent  period  is  shorter. 

While  the  puppies  may  have  some  vague  notion  of 
the  existence  of  objects  by  their  eyes,  no  clear  evidence 
of  being  able  to  see  objects  in  the  proper  sense  of  the 
term  is  to  be  obtained,  notwithstanding  many  attempts. 
.  For  the  first  time  they  lick  the  finger  without  any 
attempt  to  suck  when  it  is  presented  to  them. 

They  swallow,  but  not  very  well,  a  little  fluid  placed 
in  the  mouth,  though  they  retch  when  the  handle  of 
a  spoon  is  placed  far  back  in  the  pharynx ;  this  is 
neither  very  pronounced  nor  very  sudden.  Upon 
putting  the  finger  to  the  front  of  the  mouth,  the  foreleg' 
is  used  to  remove  it  without  any  attempt  at  sucking. 
(Will  or  reflex  ?) 

Up  to  this  date  exhaustion,  under  any  stimulus,  is 
a  marked  feature  to  which  reference  will  be  made 
subsequently. 

It  is  again  noticed  that  all  reflexes  are  more  per- 
fectly carried  out,  and  the  latent  period  shortening. 

When  the  dam  was  nursing  the  puppies  one  of 
them  was  put  behind  her.  It  felt  about  for  a  short 
time,  and  then  got  round  to  the  front  and  soon  reached 
a  teat.  Another  did  the  same,  though  not  so 
quickly. 

Individual  differences  are  now  more  evident. 

Certain  important  points  were  settled  on  the  evening 


THE  PSYCHIC   DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS     125 

of  the  17th  day,  to  which  special  attention  is  called. 
The  observations  and  experiments  were  made  at 
8.30  P.M. 

During  sleep,  growling,  twitching  of  the  muscles, 
sucking  movements,  licking,  etc.,  are  observed. 

The  dam  was  placed  near  the  puppies  when  asleep. 
There  was  licking  of  the  lips,  and  general  uneasiness, 
but  no  actual  waking  up  till  the  dam  stood  near  the 
centre  of  the  pen  where  they  were  lying,  when  some 
stood  up,  and  were  evidently  "  feeling  about  for  the 
body  scent,"  as  sportsmen  describe  the  action  of  their 
dogs  when  they  detect  the  scent  left  by  the  bodies  of 
game  birds  as  opposed  to  that  of  the  feet. 

Special  tests  were  made  of  hearing.  Clapping  of 
the  hands  rouses  them  suddenly,  but  not  in  that  un- 
questionable way  seen  later,  for  wafting  the  hand  over 
them  does  the  same,  but  less  suddenly. 

Then  low  growling  and  low  barking  sounds  are 
made,  which  seem  to  rouse  them  at  first  a  little,  but 
this  was  not  demonstrative. 

Upon  sounding  the  dog-whistle  loudly  there  was  a 
doubtful  twitching  of  the  ears,  etc.,  but  on  repeating 
any  of  these  tests  the  results  were  still  more  doubtful 
or  wholly  negative. 

To  determine  whether  this  was  due  to  the  concussion 
caused  by  clapping  the  hands,  or  to  the  actual  aerial 
vibrations,  the  physical  stimulus  in  hearing,  I  stamped 
on  the  floor  where  I  stood  when  clapping  the  hands, 
causing  more  concussion  than  the  clapping  possibly 
could,  but  with  no  results. 

Finally,  a  thick  cloth  was  interposed  between  the 
puppies  and  the  hands,  when  the  result  was  positive, 
showing  conclusively  that  hearing  was  now  established 
on  the  17th  day. 

One  of  the  puppies,  upon  having  his  back  rubbed  the 
wrong  way  of  the  hair,  or  rather  both  ways,  growled. 


126  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

Several  others  were  tried,  but,  while  roused  in  a 
measure,  did  not  growl,  and  even  the  first  one  soon 
ceased  to  react. 

Although  ordinary  sounds  do  not  rouse  them,  feelings 
of  discomfort  do,  for  they  rarely  or  never  empty  the 
bowels  or  bladder  now  where  they  lie,  but  move  aside 
to  do  so.  As  in  the  ca^se  of  rubbing  the  back,  reflex 
effects  get  fainter  and  soon  cease. 

18tk  day. — Being  without  food  for  three  hours  the 
puppies  are  very  active.  They  walk  about  with  tails 
up,  and  play  with  each  other. 

In  order  to  determine  whether  they  are  still  guided 
by  the  sense  of  smell  or  by  sight  also,  two  of  the 
puppies  were  removed  from  the  pen  and  their  eyes 
bandaged,  but  this  seemed  to  confuse  them  and  render 
them  so  uneasy  that  no  conclusions  could  be  drawn. 

However,  when  they  are  held  up  before  a  good  light, 
they  follow  with  their  eyes  the  movements  of  the  hand 
or  other  object ;  nevertheless,  when  they  reach  the  dam 
from  the  distant  part  of  the  pen,  it  is  difficult  to 
determine  how  much  they  are  guided  by  sight  and  how 
much  by  smell.  I  am  convinced  that,  while  the  former 
is  an  aid,  smell  is  still  the  most  useful  to  them  in  all 
such  cases. 

The  peculiar  noise  made  with  the  lips  to  attract  the 
attention  of  dogs,  which  I  may  term  the  lip-call,  is 
evidently  heard,  and  as  the  position  is  shifted  the 
puppies  follow  the  sound  to  right  and  left.  While  the 
dog- whistle  is  heard,  it  causes  reflexes  of  the  ears  and 
some  startling,  but  does  not  rouse  them  so  thoroughly 
into  movements  as  the  lip-call  and  certain  other 
sounds. 

When  an  attempt  is  made  to  plug  the  nostrils  with 
cotton  wool,  it  is  at  once  sneezed  out  reflexly. 

Judging  by  the  whining  and  crying  after  fasting, 
hunger  is  more  keenly  felt  than  ever. 


THE   PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT   OF  YOUNG   ANIMALS     127 

A  bandage  placed  over  the  eyes  soon  causes  sleep. 

Up  to  the  present  date  the  only  nourishment  received 
has  been  the  mother's  milk,  but  to-day  artificial  feeding 
with  cow's  rriilk  diluted  was  added.  The  first  attempts 
at  lapping,  though  far  from  perfect,  were  fairly  good — 
much  better  than  the  first  attempts  at  swallowing  fluid 
artificially  introduced.  It  is  noticed  that  they  follow  up 
slowly  the  spots  where  milk  had  been  spilled.  After 
each  feeding  they  lick  each  other's  faces  thoroughly.* 

19^  day. — The  attendant  reports  the  puppies  as 
barking  when  he  entered,  as  if  at  him. 

The  lip-call,  at  a  distance  of  6  to  8  feet,  causes 
them  to  prick  up  the  ears  quickly,  which  is  soon 
followed  by  crying  (expectancy  of  food  possibly). 

One  of  the  puppies  scratches  his  own  ear. 

Teeth  are  appearing  that  for  some  days  could  be 
felt  beneath  the  gums. 

20th  day. — Some  get  additional  teeth. 

2lst  day. — Certain  motor  manifestations  are  worthy 
of  special  mention. 

Tails  are  wagged  during  play,  and  walking  with  tail 
held  erect  is  seen  for  the  first  time. 

Several  of  them  tried  to  get  out  of  the  pen. 

When  the  muzzle  is  held  by  the  hand  both  hind 
legs  were  used  in  an  attempt  to  remove  it.  (Will  or 
reflex  ? ) 

The  hand  moved  before  the  face,  as  if  to  strike, 
causes  winking. 

Now  they  seem  to  hear  almost  every  sound  made  in 
their  compartment  of  the  kennel,  which  is  about 
15  by  6  feet. 

22nd  day. — Some  have  all  the  upper  incisors,  and  in 

*  During  four  days  I  was  absent  from  home,  but  the  puppies  were 
carefully  watched  and  notes  taken  by  members  of  my  family,  who  are 
familiar  with  the  ways  of  dogs,  and  had  frequently  been  with  me 
when  making  my  investigations  on  this  and  other  litters  of  puppies. 


128  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

one  case  the  nose  is  all  but  covered  with  the  character- 
istic black  pigment,  though  this  one  is  in  advance  of 
the  others  in  this  respect. 

23rd  day. — On  my  return  on  this  day  a  long  time 
was  spent  with  the  puppies,  and  the  following  noted : 

The  dam  is  no  longer  so  much  inclined  to  stay  with 
her  offspring,  and  does  not  wish  to  suckle  them  so 
frequently. 

The  puppies  are  fed  on  the  top  of  a  large  box,  two  at 
a  time.  It  is  found  that  unless  straw  is  placed  on  the 
top  of  the  box  the  puppies  will  not  feed.  They  decline 
to  take  half  milk  and  water  any  longer,  but  must  have 
richer  food,  and  considerable  attention  must  be  paid  to 
the  temperature  of  the  liquid. 

Great  improvement  is  noticed  in  lapping  milk, 
though  one  is  observed  attempting  to  gulp  the  milk  as 
it  were  (hunger,  etc.). 

Soon  after  feeding,  the  finger  placed  in  the  mouth  is 
not  sucked  but  rather  chewed. 

The  readiness  with  which  all  sorts  of  sounds  are 
heard,  even  when  some  distance  away,  is  striking. 

The  puppies  now  follow  a  small  object  or  a  piece  of 
paper  (2  by  3  inches)  held  within  a  few  inches  of  the 
face. 

Much  growling  in  play,  also  more  advanced  use  of 
tail.  They  also  wag  the  tail  now  sometimes  when  an 
object  is  presented  to  them,  or  when  anything  pleases 
them.  They  turn  the  head  quickly  towards  any  part 
of  the  body  gently  pinched. 

On  pinching  one  of  them  frequently  and  rapidly 
much  irritation  is  shown  by  the  voice,  expression  of 
face,  etc. 

They  now  very  frequently  stand  with  the  paws  on 
the  edge  of  the  enclosing  boards  of  the  pen,  and  show 
that  they  would  like  to  get  out.  The  height  of  the  pen 
is  now  about  15  inches. 


THE   PSYCHIC   DEVELOPMENT   OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS     129 

I  notice  one  sleeping  and  another  licking  its  face 
after  feeding,  using  its  paw  wi%  movements  closely 
akin  to  those  of  the  fore-limb  against  the  mammary 
glands  when  sucking. 

I  can  observe  a  very  considerable  advance  in  the  use 
of  the  hind  limbs  in  walking  in  four  days. 

During  the  night  one  of  the  puppies  had  got  out  of 
the  pen  and  was  making  loud  outcry  and  trying  to  get 
back. 

24:th  day. —  Special  tests  as  to  sucking  finger  gave  the 
following  results : 

Some  on  one  occasion  suck  the  finger,  others  do  not. 

Later,  three  were  tried,  one  asleep  or  almost  so,  the 
others  not,  but  all  sucked  the  finger  tip. 

One  lying  sucks  the  finger,  and  puts  up  its  fore  feet 
towards  the  hand,  and  spreads  the  claws,  at  the  same 
time  moving  the  hind  limbs  somewhat. 

One,  when  standing  and  sucking  at  the  finger,  also 
lifts  its  paw. 

25th  day. — A  piece  of  meat  held  before  the  nose  of  a 
sleeping  puppy  at  a  distance  of  2J  inches  wakes  it 
(smell).  When  this  piece  of  meat  is  rapidly  moved 
before  the  face  at  3  inches,  it  is  as  rapidly  followed 
by  movements  of  the  head.  Was  this  owing  to  smell, 
or  sight,  or  both  ? 

When  the  meat  is  put  into  the  mouth  it  is  not 
merely  sucked,  but  an  attempt  is  made  to  chew  it. 

When  the  hands  are  clapped  sharply  once,  starting 
is  produced,  suggestive  of  more  than  a  mere  reflex — 
possibly  real/right.  When  I  whistle  somewhat  lightly 
some  of  them  lark. 

26th  day. — When  I  whistle  at  the  distant  end  of  the 
pen  they  bark,  some  of  them,  but,  employing  the  lip- 
call,  they  move  in  that  direction. 

Moving  a  small  piece  of  rag  before  them  as  was 
done  with  the  meat  yesterday,  causes  similar  correspond- 

I 


130  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

ing  rapid  movements  of  the  head,  and  it  almost  seems 
as  if  they  have  some  of  that  sense  of  fun,  or  whatever 
it  may  be,  that  we  witness  in  older  dogs  under  similar 
circumstances. 

They  can  now  follow  a  small  object  at  the  distance 
of  at  least  1  foot ;  and  at  5  feet  they  can  follow  the 
movements  of  an  object  the  size  of  a  table-napkin. 
Both  the  eyes  and  head  are  moved. 

On  striking  a  single  blow  on  the  bottom  of  a  water- 
ing-can, they  all  rushed  off  to  the  distant  part  of  the 
pen,  with  all  the  expressions  of  fear. 

They  are  now  well  supplied  with  teeth  in  both  jaws, 
but  in  regard  to  this  also  there  are  individual  differences. 

They  play  much  more. 

Being  rather  chilly  to-day  they  huddle  together. 

Same  day  at  7  P.M. — When  all  are  playing  a  slight 
but  well-defined  sound  causes  them  all  to  stop  at  once. 

When  the  hand  is  put  down  in  front  of  them,  after 
they  recover,  one  comes  up  wagging  the  tail. 

The  eyes  are  now  very  widely  open,  the  expression 
changed,  and  they  can  follow  the  movements  of 
a  table-napkin  at  a  distance  of  6  to  7  feet,  but 
winking  by  the  old  test  is  not  appreciably  more  pro- 
nounced. 

One  of  the  puppies,  when  placed  on  the  floor  of  the 
kennel  covered  with  sawdust,  plays  about,  cries,  and  is 
evidently  very  uneasy,  if  not  confused.  When  put  on 
the  top  of  the  box  on  which  they  are  usually  fed,  it 
sniffed  and  looked  towards  the  white  plate  from  which 
they  drink  their  milk.  When  held  in  the  arms  it  soon 
manifests  uneasiness;  when  placed  near  the  edge  of 
the  box  it  grows  very  uneasy,  but  does  not  jump  off. 
Almost  at  once,  when  placed  back  in  the  pen,  it  became 
quiet,  and  soon  began  to  play.  By  its  movements 
it  indicates  clearly  that  the  direction  of  sound  is 
perceived, 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT   OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS     131 

27th  day. — The  puppies  follow  a  small  object  (3  by  1 
inches)  dangled  before  them  at  15  inches. 

One  is  observed  playing  with  a  straw  3  or  4  inches 
from  it.  In  this  act  there  is  the  use  of  the  mouth  and 
the  fore-limb,  with  all  that  this  implies. 

There  is  clear  evidence  that  sounds  made  at  the 
outer  door  of  the  kennel,  and  in  the  adjacent  yard,  are 
heard. 

A  basket  in  which  meat  had  been  kept,  and  giving 
off  a  strong  odour  when  brought  near  the  pen,  is  plainly 
smelled.  The  dam  is  brought  within  3  feet  of  the 
puppies,  but  unseen  by  them.  First  one,  and  then 
another  begin  to  sniff  and  soon  to  cry. 

The  playing  shows  advance ;  better  use  is  made  of 
the  hind  limbs,  which  develop  functionally  and  much 
more  slowly  than  the  forelegs.  The  head  and  neck 
movements  are  also  better  in  all  respects. 

Now,  and  even  some  days  since,  increase  in  the 
quantity  and  quality  of  the  coat,  with  changes  in  the 
shape  of  the  head  are  evident;  and  in  both  physical 
and  psychic  characteristics,  individuality  is  to  be 
noted. 

To-day  play  seemed  in  one  case  to  change  into  a 
little  quarrel  for  a  few  seconds. 

One  is  observed  to  utter  an  abortive  bark  in  its  sleep. 

28th  day. — Noises  above  the  kennel  in  my  pigeon 
loft  have  greater  effect  on  the  puppies  than  on  the 
mature  dogs  in  the  adjoining1^  kennel. 

They  can  now  follow  with  the  eyes  the  small  objects 
used  in  all  these  experiments  at  a  distance  of  4  or 
5  feet ;  while  a  napkin,  etc.,  can  be  followed  anywhere 
within  their  kennel  compartment. 

Various  objects,  as  a  plate,  glass,  a  folded  napkin,  and 
a  Spratt's  dog  biscuit,  are  presented,  but  they  mouth 
all  about  equally,  so  that  distinct  selective  choice  is 
not  shown. 


132  ANIMAL   INTELLIGENCE 

A  small  Bedlington  terrier  bitch  that  had  never  had 
puppies  was  placed  amongst  them.  All  rushed  around 
her  and  tried  to  suck  her  undeveloped  teats.  Then  a 
St  Bernard  bitch,  nearly  as  large  as  their  dam,  was 
placed  in  their  compartment.  Though  from  their  mode 
of  sniffing  it  appeared  that  they  recognised  this  animal 
as  a  stranger,  they  soon  tried  to  suck  her  also. 

When  they  are  spoken  to  in  a  friendly  way  they  wag 
the  tail  and  give  other  evidences  of  sociability  by  the 
face.  They  get  up  on  the  edge  of  the  pen  with  forelegs 
when  either  the  dam  or  any  person  is  about  to  leave 
them,  and  follow  with  the  eyes,  and  evidently  would 
with  their  limbs  if  they  could  get  out. 

They  are  not  now  nearly  so  easily  fatigued  by  any 
stimuli,  being  able  to  last  out  three  or  four  times  as 
long  as  they  could  eight  days  ago. 

29th  day. — Puppies  follow  a  small  object  at  a  distance 
of  7  feet. 

A  high-pitched,  peculiar  sound  causes  ear  reflexes  and 
barking,  while  a  low-pitched  sound,  imitating  barking, 
has  very  little  effect. 

When  a  small  piece  of  cloth  is  dangled  before  the 
face  of  the  puppy,  it  tries  to  catch  it  with  the  mouth,  and 
raises  one  foreleg  at  the  same  time,  as  if  to  assist  in  this. 

Noticed  well-executed  scratching. 

They  seem  thus  far  to  prefer  milk  to  broth  or  meat. 

30th  day. — I  did  not  make  special  notes  of  observa- 
tions on  this  day. 

31st  day. — It  seemed  that  to-day  the  dam  was  un- 
doubtedly recognised  by  sight  alone. 

When  a  bone  and  the  napkin  used  in  the  last  test  of 
this  kind  were  presented  to  the  puppies,  each  one  at 
once  selected  the  bone.  No  chewing  of  the  napkin,  which 
shows  a  distinct  advance  since  the  28th  day. 

They  now  observe  a  small  object  at  any  part  of  their 
kennel  compartment,  i.e.  at  12  to  15  feet. 


THE   PSYCHIC   DEVELOPMENT   OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS     133 

One  was  noticed  watching  with  an  intelligent  ex- 
pression the  movements  made  in  connection  with 
photographic  apparatus  within  5  feet  of  them. 

When  the  lip-call  is  uttered  they  wag  the  tail  like 
older  dogs. 

32nd  day. — By  lamplight  a  puppy  follows  by  his 
eyes  a  straw  moved  before  him  at  3  to  4  inches 
distance.  He  also  seems  much  interested  in  the  shadow 
of  my  hand  on  the  wall. 

On  holding  the  coal-oil  lamp  near  them,  all  licked  at 
the  glass  cistern  containing  oil  (smell).  One  or  two 
touched  the  chimney  with  the  nose  or  tongue,  but  the 
majority  turned  away  when  it  was  near  the  nose,  while 
neither  of  those  that  had  touched  the  chimney  went 
near  it  again. 

They  show  sociability  with  human  beings,  and  a 
tendency  to  play  with  them. 

They  become  very  quiet  and  attentive  when  they 
hear  certain  kinds  of  sounds,  which  is  prolonged  if  the 
sound  continues. 

33r$  day. — When  a  straw  is  rapidly  moved  before 
them  they  snap  at  it  to  catch  it. 

Upon  changing  the  straw  bedding  in  their  pen  they 
rub  about  in  it  much  as  old  dogs,  evidently  well  pleased. 

There  is  a  very  distinct  advance  in  the  ability  to 
lap  milk. 

Now,  when  put  on  the  covered  floor  of  the  kennel, 
with  its  covering  of  sawdust,  they  do  not  manifest 
uneasiness  as  before,  but  walk  about  and  play.  One 
is  seen  to  run  at  a  slow  rate,  with  his  tail  up,  and 
several  make  quick  starts  forward  and  backward.  On 
giving  the  lip- call,  and  snapping  my  fingers,  one,  a  few 
feet  distant,  ran  towards  me. 

They  now  watch  what  is  being  done  near  them  some- 
what attentively. 

A  slight  tap  on  some  boards  above  them  causes  them 


134  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

all  to  move  quickly  away  with  tails  down  and  other 
expressions  of  fear. 

34:th  day. — Tested  them  with  a  napkin  and  Spratt's 
dog  biscuit  as  on  the  28th  day.  *  Now  they  all  show 
very  decided  preference  for  the  biscuit,  which  is  not  so 
attractive  as  a  bone  to  any  dog.  One  or  two  began  to 
smell  about  the  floor  of  the  pen  as  an  old  dog  does,  and 
yesterday  one  was  observed  scratching  at  a  spot  on  the 
floor  where  some  excrement  had  been. 

At  this  age  puppies  have  very  sharp  teeth,  and  it  is 
not  very  uncommon  now  to  hear  one  cry  out  when  his 
fellow  uses  his  jaws  too  freely  in  play. 

Scratching  is  more  common. 

While  the  winking  reflex,  from  a  simple  movement  of 
the  hand  as  before,  is  not  readily  produced,  a  sudden 
tap  on  the  ledge  of  the  pen  will  cause  winking  if  they 
are  looking  that  way,  and  within  a  foot  or  so  of  the  spot 
struck.  They  also  wink  when  the  muzzle  is  suddenly 
touched. 

36th  day. — They  now  retire  to  one  end  of  their  pen 
to  answer  nature's  calls. 

They  are  noticed  smelling  at  the  shoes  of  any  one 
who  happens  to  be  near  them. 

They  'bark  in  sleep  like  older  dogs. 

When  the  finger  is  thrust  into  the  mouth  some  suck 
a  good  while,  some  not  at  all. 

36th  day. — They  follow  me  around  their  kennel 
compartment,  and  are  inclined  to  seize  the  skirts  of  a 
very  long  coat  I  wear.  By  way  of  testing  recognition 
of  the  dam,  she  and  her  other  puppy,  eight  months  old, 
and  nearly  as  large  as  herself,  were  brought  to  the 
puppies  together.  They  all  at  once  rushed  to  the  dam. 
But  soon  after  her  removal  they  attempted  to  suck  the 
younger  bitch,  though  from  their  sniffing  it  seemed  to 
me  they  noticed  her  strange. 

Later  in  the  day  the  small  bitch  (Bedlington  terrier) 


THE   PSYCHIC   DEVELOPMENT    OF   YOUNG  ANIMALS     135 

used  for  a  similar  test  before,  was  placed  among  them. 
They  soon  tried  to  suck  her  teats,  at  which,  on  account 
of  her  smaller  size,  they  could  readily  get. 

37th  day. — Being  a  warm  day  the  puppies  feel  the 
heat  a  good  deal,  lie  far  apart  from  each  other,  and 
pant  with  tongues  lolling  out. 

At  a  distance  of  10  feet,  a  mere  word  uttered  in  a 
low  voice  rouses  one  that  is  drowsing. 

Out  of  five  tested  only  one  sucked  when  the  finger 
was  introduced  into  the  mouth. 

38th  day. — They  gave  evidence  of  seeing  me  well, 
though  I  was  standing  at  an  outside  door  of  the  kennel, 
with  two  wire-mesh  partitions  between,  and  at  a  dis- 
tance of  about  12  feet. 

Upon  dangling  a  rope  over  their  heads  one  seizes  and 
pulls  at  it,  but  when  doing  the  same  with  a  bright 
chain  they  make  off,  showing  fear.  This  was  probably 
owing  to  the  noise  it  made,  the  brightness,  and,  in  one 
case,  to  the  puppy  having  come  in  contact  with  it. 

The  compartment  in  which  they  are  kept  is  closed  by 
a  heavy  wire-mesh  door,  through  which  every  exit  must 
be  made.  They  crowd  around  this  often  now,  and 
sometimes  whine  there  when  hungry. 

39th  day. — High  temperature ;  puppies  very  uneasy. 

Seeing  me  at  some  little  distance,  one  of  them  wags 
the  tail  like  an  old  dog,  showing  its  sociable  and  friendly 
nature. 

When  one  speaks  they  show  pleasure  by  the  tail, 
expression  of  face,  etc. 

Two  bones  from  cooked  meat  were  placed  on  the 
straw  of  their  pen,  which  now  has  walls  only  a  few 
inches  high,  so  that  they  can  go  in  and  out  easily. 

One  or  two  go  towards  the  bones,  followed  by  others ; 
one  seizes  a  bone  and  walks  out  of  the  pen  with  tail 
up,  much  in  the  manner  of  an  older  dog.  I  suddenly 
removed  the  bone,  when  the  puppy  that  had  it  sniffed 


136  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

about,  going  back  over  his  track,  evidently  guided  by 
the  scent  it  had  left. 

Some  of  them  that  had  followed  up  the  puppies  that 
had  taken  the  bones  return  to  the  straw,  seeking  them. 

The  removal  of  a  large  piece  of  tin  that  has  been 
used  to  encircle  a  stove  in  a  protective  way,  made  a 
noise  which  caused  them  all  to  rush  away  as  so  many 
sheep,  but  when  I  gave  the  lip-call  they  soon  recovered 
and  came  towards  me. 

Given  water  in  a  vessel  to  drink  for  the  first  time, 
they  merely  dip  into  it. 

40th  day. — Being  decidedly  cooler  they  do  not  whine 
or  cry,  but  play  much. 

One  is  seen  violently  shaking  a  piece  of  paper  that 
was  in  the  straw. 

Another  is  seen  scratching  his  head,  with  the  latter 
inclined  towards  his  leg  in  the  manner  of  a  mature  dog, 
though  with  much  slower  movements. 

To-day  one  is  seen  to  lap  water  when  it  is  poured 
into  the  vessel  attached  to  the  wire-mesh  partition, 
whereupon  several  others  do  so. 

In  the  evening  one  is  noticed  moving  about  in  a  way 
peculiar  to  an  old  dog  prior  to  defecation. 

When  any  one  enters  the  kennel  the  puppies  now  run 
about  his  legs  eagerly. 

They  have  almost  deserted  their  pen,  and  lie  about 
on  the  floor  of  their  kennel  compartment,  finding  it 
cooler,  while  the  layer  of  sawdust  makes  it  soft  to  rest 
upon. 

41st  day.  —Their  pen  was  wholly  removed  to-day,  as  it 
served  no  good  purpose. 

They  occasionally  lie  so  that  the  head  and  body  is  in 
a  fashion  supported,  e.g.  against  the  partition  or  walls  of 
the  kennel,  or  with  the  head-on  a  part  of  the  floor  that 
is  there  a  little  raised. 

A  very  slight  growl  at  the  outer  door  of  the  main 


THE   PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS     137 

kennel  with  three  partitions  or  walls  between  (doors 
being  open)  causes  one  of  them,  though  lying  apparently 
asleep,  to  get  up,  and  if  anything  happens  they  all 
awake  if  one  moves  much  or  whines. 

One  of  them  is  observed  to  snap  at  a  fly. 

At  10  P.M.  I  notice  one  of  the  puppies  scraping  away 
the  sawdust  near  the  elevation  referred  to  above,  on 
which  he  had  laid  his  head  in  preparing  to  rest.  He 
tried  the  spot  once  or  twice  before  he  finally  laid  his 
head  down. 

42nd  day. — It  is  very  warm,  and  the  puppies  whine 
and  cry  a  good  deal  owing  to  the  discomfort,  as  their 
coats  are  thick  and  warm. 

Now  there  are  many  evidences  that  they  hear  as 
acutely  as  mature  dogs,  if  not  more  so,  and  sounds  dis- 
turb them  more,  as  they  do  not  know  their  meaning 
so  well. 

They  now  show  an  interest  in  everything  that  goes 
on  within  their  field  of  examination  with  eyes,  nose,  etc. 
In  fact  it  is  difficult  to  move  about  among  them. 

When  they  see  one  they  may  cry  out  if  hungry,  wag 
the  tail  if  recently  fed  and  satisfied,  sniff,  etc. 

This  sniffing  is  a  characteristic  method  of  investigation 
with  dogs,  and  its  appearance,  at  this  date  and  earliei ,  is 
significant. 

On  every  occasion,  if  they  see  or  smell  the  dam  (that 
is  seldom  with  them  now,  as  they  were  gradually  weaned 
— the  process  ending  to-day),  they  cry  out. 

While  this  litter  is  an  unusually  even  one  in  physical 
characteristics,  at  all  events,  individual  differences  are 
to  be  observed  in  many  directions.  There  are  some 
decided  differences  in  psychic  manifestations. 

One,  a  bitch,  seems  to  be  quicker  and  more  precocious 
than  the  rest  by  a  great  deal. 

One  dog  growls  when  feeding,  as  they  do  at  present 
all  together  from  one  large  dish. 


138  .     ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

43rd  day. — It  is  warm,  and  two  are  noticed  lying  in 
a  darker  and  more  secluded  part  of  the  kennel,  where 
there  are  fewer  flies  perhaps. 

It  is  noticed  that  now  one  often  acts  as  does  another  ; 
one  seems  to  take  its  cue  from  another. 

4Ath  day. — So  very  warm,  the  puppies  are  prostrated 
by  the  heat,  and  lie  about,  maintaining  mere  existence. 

45th  day. — To-day,  for  the  first  time,  the  door  of  their 
compartment  was  left  open,  so  that  they  might  enter 
an  adjoining  one,  which  is  in  general  fitted  up  in  the 
same  way,  so  that  the  environment  is  substantially 
the  same. 

It  was  curious  to  note  the  results.  It  was  some 
minutes  before  the  puppies,  the  precocious  bitch  ex- 
cepted,  realised  that  the  door  was  really  open,  and 
that  they  had  free  access  to  a  new  compartment.  They 
did  not  at  once  surmount  the  difficulty  presented  by  the 
door  case  only  a  few  inches  high.  When  some  of  them 
came  in  and  saw  the  water  vessel  attached  to  the  other 
side  of  the  wire-mesh  partition,  they  did  not  at  once 
comprehend  that  they  could  not  drink  from  it,  when 
they  saw  their  fellow  on  the  distant  side  lapping.  All 
this,  however,  lasted  but  a  very  few  minutes.  Soon 
they  all  were  busy  investigating  the  new  place  with 
nose,  eyes,  feet,  etc. 

The  new  experiences  evidently  afford  them  unusual 
pleasure  in  spite  of  the  heat,  as  they  play  more  than 
for  some  days. 

To-day  I  first  used  a  switch  to  learn  what  effect  it 
would  have  on  their  crying,  etc. 

They  seem  to  make  the  mental  association  to  some 
extent,  but  only  imperfectly. 

One  of  them,  as  they  crowded  around  me,  was  trodden 
upon,  and  this  had  a  decided  and  somewhat  lasting 
psychic  effect,  as  will  be  seen  later.  As  he  was  running 
away  after  this  accident,  I  caught  him,  and  was  trying  to 


THE    PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS 

soothe  the  creature,  but  this  was  not  at  first  understood, 
and  increased  its  terror. 

Later  in  the  day  they  understand  the  whip  better. 
I  notice  what  may  be  termed  wanton  larking  as  well  as 
that  which  denotes  but  an  excess  of  good  feeling — 
"  animal  spirits." 

Now  and  then  one  turns  round  on  another  that  is 
attempting  to  play  with  it  in  quite  a  fierce  way. 

They  are  running  more  than  formerly. 

There  are  physical  changes  and  good  growth  notwith- 
standing the  long  succession  of  hot — to  them  very  hot 
— days. 

One  of  them  is  observed  using  both  paws  to  scrape 
away  the  sawdust  from  a  part  of  the  kennel  floor.  He 
then  puts  down  his  head  and  tries  the  spot.  This  was 
repeated  three  times  before  the  puppy  lay  quietly  at 
rest. 

Actions  of  one  are  followed  by  similar  actions  in  others 
much  more  frequently  and  readily  than  before. 

46 th  day. — It  has  been  raining ;  the  sky  is  dull  and 
the  atmosphere  is  moist,  and  though  it  is  still  warm  the 
puppies  seem  less  restless  and  uncomfortable.  They 
cry  much  less, 

47th  day^ — I  notice  that  the  precocious  bitch  acts 
towards  the  whip  much  as  an  old  dog  or  a  half  grown 
one  often  does.  This  is  difficult  to  describe.  The 
animal  shows  that  it  understands  what  its  relations  are, 
but  seems  to  combine  a  sort  of  pleading  with  humour. 
It  is  complex,  however,  and  must  be  witnessed  to  be 
understood. 

The  individual  that  was  trodden  upon  now  retires  to 
another  part  of  the  compartment  when  I  appear ;  there 
is  evidently  a  very  unpleasant  association  of  ideas. 

At  11.30  P.M.  I  went  to  the  kennel  to  see  how  all 
my  dogs  were,  as  the  night  was  very  close.  The  door 
directly  opposite  the  puppy -kennel  was  open.  I  had 


140  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

no  light  and  walked  softly,  yet  two  of  the  puppies, 
lying  against  the  wire-mesh  partition,  some  6  or  8 
'feet  from  where  I  stood  in  the  darkness,  awoke  and 
soon  began  to  cry  as  I  passed  close  to  the  closed  main 
kennel  door.  The  old  dogs  were  heard  sniffing.  They 
evidently  detected  me  by  the  sense  of  smell. 

Was  it  wholly  so  in  the  case  of  the  puppies,  or  were 
they  assisted  by  sight  ?  Hearing  may,  I  think,  be 
excluded,  though  not  with  perfect  confidence,  so  sharp 
now  are  their  ears. 

In  any  case,  this  observation  is  of  much  significance, 
even  be  it  granted  that  they  were  not  asleep  at  the 
time  I  stood  before  the  door  of  their  kenneL  It  is 
further  to  be  remembered,  in  this  instance,  that  by  a 
misunderstanding  the  puppies  had  not  had  their  last 
evening  meal,  and  also  lacked  water. 

4Sth  day. — It  remains  warm.  The  flies  are  trouble- 
some, and  as  the  puppies  lie  asleep,  or  trying  to  sleep, 
the  same  movements  of  the  skin  of  the  head,  of  the  ears, 
etc.,  may  be  seen  as  in  mature  dogs  when  flies  irritate 
these  parts. 

49£A  day. — To-day,  for  the  first  time,  the  puppies  were 
removed  for  a  time  to  a  part  of  the  yard  enclosed  by 
wire-mesh.  The  earth  furnishes  a  fresh  surface  with 
various  small  objects  on  it. 

The  puppies  proceed  to  investigate,  as  when  before 
they  were  given  free  access  to  new  surroundings. 

They  seize  and  carry  small  objects,  which  they  take 
from  each  other,  indulge  in  play,  and  evidently  ex- 
perience keen  enjoyment.  After,  say,  half  an  hour,  they 
lie  down  and  sleep. 

When  I  call  "  Puppies  ! "  from  a  verandah,  at  a  height 
of  about  20  feet,  and  at  about  the  same  distance  on 
their  plane,  they  look  up,  some  of  them  at  least,  at  once, 
to  my  surprise,  for  I  expected  they  would  not  be  able 
to  detect  the  direction  of  the  sound  so  quickly. 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS      141 

The  bitch  puppy  was  taken  upstairs  in  my  house  to- 
day to  be  weighed.  She,  like  two  of  the  dogs,  seemed 
abashed  by  the  new  surroundings,  but  soon  recovered, 
and  when  some  one  entered  by  the  front  door  down- 
stairs, one  storey,  turned  the  head  in  the  direction  of 
the  sound. 

60th  day. — When  crying  this  morning,  one  of  them 
was  well  whipped,  with  the  result  that  it  remained 
quiet  for  some  hours  after.  Dogs,  young  and  old,  easily 
acquire  habits,  good  and  bad,  and  barking  and  crying 
are  examples,  and  sometimes  one  or  two  whippings  that 
are  felt  puts  an  end  to  what  renders  the  dog  wretched, 
as  well  as  those  who  must  listen  to  him,  hence  the 
treatment  alluded  to  above. 

In  attempting  to  give  them  some  bromide  of 
potassium  to  quiet  their  uneasiness,  it  is  found  that 
they  fight  against  the  unpleasant  stuff,  and  it  is  with 
difficulty  they  can  be  made  to  swallow  it  at  all. 

51st  day. — They  are  awake  very  early  (4  A.M.),  and 
eager  for  food  and  exercise. 

I  moved  a  whip  over  one  that  had  been  making  a 
good  deal  of  outcry.  She  looked  as  if  she  knew  what 
it  meant  (had  been  before  whipped  two  or  three  times). 
As  I  moved  the  whip  she  put  up  one  paw  as  if  to  ward 
it  off. 

52nd  day. — Cooler  to-day  and  the  puppies  are  quieter. 
Barking  now  frequent ;  seems  to  be  partly  from  excess 
of  animal  spirits,  and  at  other  times  from  a  sort  of 
wantonness.  I  notice  an  advance  in  co-ordination  in 
scratching ;  they  adapt  one  part  to  another  still  more 
like  an  old  dog  than  formerly. 

53rd  day. — When  I  lift  the  whip,  and  wave  it  3 
feet  above  them,  another  lifts  a  paw.  They  all  look  as 
if  they  knew  the  meaning  of  a  whip  better. 

When  1  shouted  "  Puppy  ! "  from  an  upper  verandah, 
about  50  feet  distant,  two  of  them  that  were  lying 


142  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

quietly  in  the  sawdust  arose,  a  ad  looked  towards  the 
source  of  the  sound. 

54th  day. — The  same  sort  of  pawing,  and  at  the  same 
places  as  before. 

It  is  scarcely  possible  to  go  into  the  kennel  anywhere 
now  when  they  are  awake  without  some  of  them 
detecting  my  presence  by  ear,  eye,  or  smell,  or  by  all 
three,  as  is  now  evidently  often  the  case. 

55th  day. — Warm.  Much  barking  and  restlessness. 
They  have  for  some  two  or  three  weeks  had  the  range 
of  two  compartments  of  the  kennel,  but  they  would 
evidently  like  the  range  of  the  whole  yard  as  well  as 
the  outside  run;  and  if  this  were  once  permitted, 
experience  with  other  puppies  has  taught  me,  they 
might  be  unwilling  to  stay  in  the  kennel  at  all  during 
the  day,  which  condition  of  things  would  not  in  several 
respects  be  desirable. 

The  dog  trodden  upon  still  shows  that  he  remembers, 
but  will  now  turn  to  the  lip-call. 

56th  day. — Eighth  week.  Though  the  litter  remains 
an  even  one,  changes  characteristic  of  growth  and 
development  are  evident. 

The  bitch  puppy  shows  very  pronounced  changes  in 
colour  of  coat,  expression  of  face,  temperament,  etc., 
and  has  the  most  marked  individuality  of  any  of  them 
at  present.  She  seems  still  precocious. 

57th  day. — They  are  so  active  it  is  difficult  to  move 
around  among  them. 

It  is  noteworthy  that  they  use  the  kennel  compart- 
ment they  occupied  originally  as  a  retiring  place  to 
answer  to  nature's  calls,  while  they  play,  rest,  and  sleep 
chiefly  in  the  additional  compartment  last  given  them. 
Perhaps  this  is  to  be  accounted  for  in  part  by  the 
fact  that,  from  the  latter,  there  is  a  door  opening  out- 
ward, and  another  of  wire-netting,  through  which  they 
can  look  out  and  catch  an  occasional  breeze. 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS      143 

58th  day. — An  ox's  head,  that  had  been  boiled  free 
from  all  flesh,  was  placed  amongst  them.  They  all 
attacked  it  eagerly,  showing  inexperience. 

An  old  dog  would  have  acted  in  this  way  only  in 
case  of  extreme  hunger. 

Some  desist  and  again  return  to  the  attack,  but  show 
that  already  experience  has  not  been  lost  on  them. 
Some  of  them  growl  when  others  approach. 

59th  day. — The  puppies  are  given  small  rib-bones 
from  cooked  lamb.  Each  carries  off  his  own  with  tail 
up ;  uses  the  paws  to  steady  the  bone ;  gets  hold  of  it 
with  his  teeth  by  the  end,  so  that  he  may  gnaw  off 
perchance  some  of  it ;  growls  when  a  fellow  approaches, 
etc.  All  this  was  suggestive  of  the  behaviour  of  an 
old  dog.  The  puppies  plainly  recognise  the  nature  of 
a  fellow's  growl  under  these  circumstances. 

QOth  day. — Temperature  higher.  The  puppies  show 
the  effect  of  the  heat  both  physically  and  psychically. 

61st  day. — To-day  one  sheep's  head  and  a  bone  for 
each  is  placed  in  their  compartment. 

In  gnawing  their  own  bone,  in  growling  and  acting 
on  the  defensive  generally,  there  is  considerable  advance 
over  the  59th  day. 

They  are  allowed  into  the  large  yard  to-day  for  the 
first  time.  They  have  seen  this  yard  from  the  kennel 
and  from  their  wire  fence  run  in  the  middle  of  it. 
They  mingle  with  the  older  dogs  and  act  very  much 
like  them.  They  try  to  suck  the  dam  and  both  the 
other  bitches  referred  to  before  on  the  28th,  etc.,  days. 

They  move  about  the  yard  from  the  first,  as  if 
acquainted  with  it,  and  choose  the  comfortably  shady 
places  in  which  to  lie.  By  the  lip-call,  etc.,  I  get  them 
to  follow  me  back  to  the  kennel,  but  when  inside  the 
door  they  hesitate  and  soon  make  for  the  yard.  When 
placed  in  their  usual  compartment  in  the  kennel,  after 
being  some  hours  in  the  yard,  they  cry,  but  not  long. 


144  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

Brief  Extracts  from  the  Early  Records  of  the  Diary  of 
Another  Litter  of  St  Bernards,  by  the  same  Dam,  but 
Another  Sire. 

18th  day. — First  seen  playing. 

20th  day. — They  seize  the  finger  instead  of  sucking  it. 
Come  at  lip-call,  with  tails  up. 

22nd  day. — They  no  longer  mistake  other  parts  for  the 
teats  of  the  dam. 

28th  day.— When  called  ("  Puppy  ! ")  they  wag  the  tail. 

During  the  third  week  (the  day  not  noted)  the  first 
attempt  at  scratching  observed. 

7th  week. — Individual  differences  pronounced. 

Brief  Extracts  from  the  Diary  of  a  Litter  of  Bedlington 
Terriers. 

2nd  day. — Taste  tested  with  Epsom  salts  and  nux  vomica. 
Cannot  determine  positively  whether  they  either  taste  or 
smell. 

On  the  same  day  pinching  causes  them  to  cry  out  with 
pain,  but  the  latent  period  is  notably  long. 

$th  day. — Concussion  of  the  surface  on  which  they  lie 
causes  appearance  of  fright. 

llth  day. — Eyes  begin  to  open. 

They  smack  their  lips,  etc.  (the  eyes  being  covered)  when 
meat  is  held  2  inches  from  the  nose. 

16th  day. — Ears  not  well  open.     Hearing  still  doubtful. 

Seem  to  smell  at  3  or  4  inches. 

I9th  day. — When  asleep  I  take  the  dam  in  quietly. 
When  within  2  feet  the  puppies  begin  to  move — soon  to 
whine  and  cry. 

Hearing  still  doubtful,  but  inclined  to  think  it  exists  in 
feeble  degree. 

This  day  they  managed  to  get  out  of  the  pen,  which  is 
5  or  6  inches  high. 

They  also  co-ordinate  well  in  scratching. 

First  growling  noticed. 

Sexual  differentiation  shown  in  expression,  in  shape,  and 
psychic  as  well  as  somatic  characteristics. 

22nd  day. — Clear  evidence  of  recognising  dam  by  smell 
when  she  could  not  be  seen. 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS      145 

23rd  day. — Playing.  Differences  in  coat,  shape  of  head, 
etc.,  showing  a  physical  advance. 

They  now  bite  and  chew  at  objects.  They  show  a  decided 
aversion  to  Epsom  salts. 

25th  day. — Began  feeding  milk.  They  do  fairly  well  at 
first  attempt  to  lap. 

2Qth  day. — They  push  through  some  slats  confining  them, 
showing  considerable  co-ordinative  power,  etc. 

30th  day. — Kepeated  and  rapid  pinching  of  their  sides 
makes  them  very  angry— snarl,  etc. 

The  fall  of  a  shovel  causes  them  all  to  cower  with  fear. 

32nd  day. — Lip-call  followed  by  their  approach  with 
wagging  tail. 

37th  day. — The  sound  of  a  whip  surprises  and  seems  to 
puzzle  them. 

&5th  day. — When  about  to  punish  another  mature  terrier 
they  hide  away  under  the  benches. 

They  are  put  down  in  the  yard,  a  large  one,  for  the  first 
time,  and  seem  puzzled  and  shy. 

4:6th  day. — Great  changes  now  visible  in  physical  features, 
expression  of  face  (more  knowing),  etc.  They  now  crowd 
each  other  when  eating  from  the  same  dish.  Their  move- 
ments and  whole  demeanour  more  terrier-like.  This  is  seen 
in  play  very  clearly. 

They  are  now  much  more  readily  and  profoundly  affected 
by  noises. 

tfth  day. — Eapid  development  owing  to  enlarged  ex- 
perience ;  much  more  aggressive. 

50th  day. — Two  of  them  given  bones.  Each  goes  off  with 
one.  When  one  comes  up  to  take  the  other's,  he  pulls  it 
away  but  does  not  growl.  Lies  down  to  bone  and  uses  his 
feet  to  steady  it  like  a  mature  dog.  When  the  bone  is 
snatched  up  the  puppy  sniffs  about  after  it. 

Sexual  and  individual  differences  now  more  evident — I 
mean  that  the  peculiarities  of  shape,  expression,  and 
demeanour  that  characterise  a  mature  bitch,  and  which  only 
close  observers  of  dogs  detect,  are  now  fairly  well  developed. 

58th  day. — When  looking  out  into  darkness  at  night  they 
show  hesitation,  fear^  etc. 

The  discussion  that  follows  is  based  almost  entirely 
on  the  diary  of  the  litter  of  St  Bernard  puppies,  ex- 
tended over  sixty  days. 

K 


146  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

The  extract  from  the  diary  of  another  litter  of  St 
Bernards  (their  half  brothers  and  sisters)  is  introduced 
for  comparison  chiefly ;  that  of  the  Bedlington  terriers 
for  this  reason,  and  in  addition  because  it  supplements 
the  chief  diary,  and  in  some  respects  makes  good 
omissions  in  investigations  in  the  early  days. 

Remarks  on  the  Diary,  etc. 

As  the  litter  of  puppies  on  which  these  remarks  are 
chiefly  based  was  a  very  healthy,  active,  and  especially 
even  one,  there  being  no  weaklings,  and  none  very 
much  in  advance  physically  or  otherwise,  the  notes 
are  of  the  more  value  as  representing  observations  in 
perfectly  normal  specimens  of  pure-bred  dogs. 

The  facts  most  striking  in  the  first  few  days  of  life 
are  the  frequent  desire  to  suck,  the  perfect  ability  to 
reach  the  teats  of  the  dam  just  after  birth,  the  misery 
evident  under  cold  or  hunger,  and  the-  fact  that  the 
greater  part  of  existence  is  spent  in  the  sleeping  state. 
The  latter  is  so  well  known  that  I  have  not  thought 
it  necessary  to  make  special  notes  upon  the  subject, 
but  it,  of  course,  gradually  gives  way  to  a  form  of  exist- 
ence in  which  sleep  has  a  less  and  less  prominent  share. 

There  are  many  reasons  why  so  much  time  is  spent 
in  sleep,  and  why  sleep  is  so  readily  induced,  to  some 
of  which  reference  has  been  made  in  the  diary,  and  to 
which  I  shall  refer  again. 

All  parts  of  an  animal's  body,  owing  to  nervous  or 
simply  protoplasmic  connections  merely,  are  in  relation 
to  each  other,  and  this  must  constantly  be  borne  in  mind 
if  we  would  understand  psychic  as  well  as  physical 
(somatic)  phenomena.  The  nervous  centres,  however, 
constitute  a  sort  of  head  office,  or  series  of  offices,  where 
the  various  changes  of  the  body  are  reported,  correlated, 
etc.,  in  all  higher  animals.  In  the  youngest,  though 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  VOTING  ANIMALS      147 

the  cerebrum  is  but  indifferently  active  as  yet,  the 
lower  nervous  centres  are  constantly  receiving  impulses 
coming  from  peripheral  parts,  the  viscera  included,  and 
if  these  are  of  an  abnormal  or  disturbing  character, 
there  result  those  forms  of  expression  or  external  re- 
presentation of  the  ingoing  effects,  mostly  movements 
which  we  can  correlate  with  their  causes.  Hence  the 
young  animal  expresses  its  feelings  of  discomfort  as 
hunger,  cold,  etc.,  by  movements,  some  of  which  result 
in  cries,  whining,  etc.,  and  experiments,  as  well  as  the 
behaviour  of  animals  born  without  the  cerebrum,  show 
that  the  higher  parts  of  the  brain  may  be  little 
concerned. 

The  feeling  of  discomfort  from  being  in  an  atmos- 
phere that  is  not  warm  enough,  is  different  somewhat 
from  the  sensation,  likewise  disagreeable,  of  a  body 
too  cold  being  placed  against  the  skin.  Effects  not 
confined  to  the  surface,  but  modifying  the  whole  of  the 
vital  processes,  result  from  the  former,  as  it  is  well 
known  that  very  young  animals  cannot  exist  at  all 
in  a  temperature  below  a  certain  rather  high  point  as 
compared  with  that  endurable  by  mature  animals. 

Nothing  is  more  striking  than  the  efforts  the  animal 
makes  almost  as  soon  as  it  is  born  to  place  itself  in 
an  environment  of  comfort.  The  importance  of  this 
instinct — just  as  fundamental  as  sucking,  etc. — will  be 
evident  when  one  considers  that  the  vital  processes 
cannot  continue  except  under  these  conditions.  It  is 
even  more  important  than  that  there  should  be  a  supply 
of  food  within  the  first  few  hours. 

SUCKING. — Sucking  has  been  so  frequently  referred 
to  by  writers  as  an  example  of  a  perfect  instinct,  that 
I  have  taken  pains  to  give  some  details  regarding  it, 
and  to  trace  its  modifications  and  final  decline. 

It  will  be  observed  by  any  one  who  will,  without 
prejudice,  examine  the  subject,  that  sucking  is  not 


148  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

perfect  at  first ;  that,  like  the  lapping  of  milk,  swallow- 
ing, etc.,  but  much  less  so,  it  is  improved  by  practice, 
and  that  it  is  subject  to  modification  with  the  increas- 
ing experience  of  the  animal.  It  is  true  the  mechanism 
of  sucking,  both  muscular  and  nervous,  in  consequence 
of  countless  ancestral  experiences,  is  like  perfectly 
made  machinery  in  good  order,  it  will  work  on  the 
slightest  stimulus,  but  later  this  machinery  is  better 
oiled;  it  works  better.  That  there  is  but  imperfect 
discrimination  as  to  what  is  sucked  is  well  shown  by 
my  diary,  and  that  the  act  only  continues  a  certain 
time,  when  milk  is  not  obtained,  proves  that  the 
instinct  is  fairly  perfect.  However,  as  the  notes  show, 
the  older  the  puppy  the  more  perfectly  does  it  utilise 
the  sucking  mechanism,  the  less  energy  does  it  waste, 
e.g.  the  feet  are  used  to  much  greater  advantage  in 
pressing  the  mammary  glands  after  a  couple  of  weeks 
than  in  the  first  days. 

Does  the  puppy  find  the  teats  shortly  after  its  birth 
by  smell  ?  I  am  convinced  that  it  plays  no  great  part 
in  the  matter  for  some  days,  as  far  as  dogs  are  con- 
cerned. After  birth  they  crawl  towards  the  mother's 
abdomen  to  get  warmth ;  they  tend  to  suck  almost  any 
fleshy  object  that  comes  in  their  way  that  is  not  cold ; 
they  meet  the  teats,  which  are  the  objects  best  adapted 
to  seize  and  suck ;  getting  satisfaction,  this  is  continued. 
No  doubt,  later,  smell,  the  tactile  sense,  still  later  vision, 
and  a  whole  host  of  stored  experiences  guide  in  this, 
as  in  other  cases,  in  which  instinct  is  essential  and 
most  prominent  in  the  result.  But  that  smell  is 
essential  that  a  puppy  may  reach  its  dam's  teats  soon 
after  birth  I  cannot  believe,  from  the  many  observations 
I  have  made. 

PAIN. — That  a  puppy,  in  the  first  hour  of  its  exist- 
ence, feels  discomfort  cannot  be  doubted,  but  I  regret 
ihat  I  did  not  make  some  definite  experiments  on  the 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS      149 

subject  of  pain  on  the  first  day,  even  in  the  first  hour. 
This  has  been  made  good  in  part  by  brief  extracts 
from  a  diary  kept  of  a  litter  of  Bedlington  terriers, 
previously  introduced.  Such  experiments  are  necessary, 
as  the  discomfort  one  witnesses  in  young  puppies  might 
be  due  in  certain  cases  to  internal  and  not  to  skin 
sensations. 

TACTILE  SENSIBILITY. — Very  striking,  indeed,  are  the 
effects  on  a  puppy  of  any  age  up  to  two  months  (and 
noticeable  even  in  mature  dogs)  of  stroking,  smoothing 
movements  with  the  hand.  In  some  very  young 
animals,  as  birds,  I  find  a  similar  effect,  due  to  placing 
the  hand  on  them  or  over  them.  In  this  case  the 
effect  is  largely  due  to  the  heat  of  the  hand  ;  in  young 
puppies  the  gentle  tactile  stimulus  is  the  principal,  but 
not  the  sole  cause  of  the  quieting  effect.  In  this  way 
a  puppy  may,  when  very  young,  soon  be  put  to  sleep, 
i.e.  the  activity  of  the  nervous  centres  is  inhibited  by 
tactile  sensations,  so  that  the  frequent  lickings  of  the 
dam  not  only  cleanse  but  soothe  the  puppies.  There 
is,  after  the  eyes  are  opened,  a  very  rapid  increase  in 
the  acuteness  of  tactile  sensibility,  well  shown  in  the 
readiness  with  which  a  slight  touch  on  the  lips  will 
induce  motor  response,  especially  well  seen  in  sucking 
movements,  etc. 

TEMPERATURE  SENSE. — Experiments  in  this  subject 
were,  unfortunately,  not  made  in  the  early  days.  How- 
ever, I  tested  a  kitten,  five  days  old,  with  an  iron 
warmed  and  also  with  ice,  getting  decisive  results  of 
a  positive  kind.  I  think  that  it  is  likely  that  the 
temperature  sense  is  well  marked  from  the  first,  though 
the  squirming,  cries,  etc.,  of  young  animals  are  not  of 
themselves  conclusive  as  to  this. 

THE  MUSCULAR  SENSE. — On  this  subject  a  few  words 
will  suffice.  Considering  how  numerous  and  perfect 
are  the  co-ordinated  muscular  movements  of  compara- 


150  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

tively  young  puppies,  this  sense  must  be  early  present, 
and  finally  well  developed. 

SENSE  OF  SUPPORT. — I  have  found  in  the  case  of  all 
puppies,  and  several  other  kinds  of  animals  examined, 
that  even  on  the  first  day  of  birth  they  will  not  creep 
off  a  surface  on  which  they  rest,  if  elevated  some  little 
distance  above  the  ground.  When  they  approach  the 
edge  they  manifest  hesitation,  grasp  with  their  claws 
or  otherwise  attempt  to  prevent  themselves  falling,  and, 
it  may  be,  cry  out,  giving  evidence  of  some  profound 
disturbance  in  their  nervous  system. 

It  would  seem  that  there  is  no  more  urgent  psychic 
necessity  to  young  mammals  than  this  sense  of  being 
supported.  All  their  ancestral  experiences  have  been 
associated  with  terra  Jirma,  so  that  it  is  not  very  sur- 
prising that  when  terra  fir  ma  seems  about  to  be  re- 
moved they  are  so  much  disturbed.  To  my  own  mind 
this  is  one  of  the  most  instructive  and  striking  psychic 
manifestations  of  young  animals,  though  I  am  not  aware 
that  any  attention  has  been  called  to  it  before;  and 
instead  of  referring  to  it  under  any  of  the  usual 
divisions  of  sense,  as  the  muscular  sense,  pressure 
sense,  etc.,  I  prefer  to  treat  the  subject  under  the  above 
general  heading,  for  it  seems  to  me  that  the  feeling  is  a 
somewhat  complex  one. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  a  water  tortoise  I  have 
had  for  some  years  will  at  any  time  walk  off  a  surface 
on  which  he  is  placed.  But  this  is  not  a  creature  that 
always  is  on  terra  firma  in  the  same  sense  as  a  dog,  but 
it  frequently  has  occasion  to  drops  off  logs,  etc.,  into 
water.  But  again,  I  find  this  sense  of  support  well 
marked  in  birds  that  drop  themselves  into  "  thin  air." 
Nevertheless,  a  consideration  of  ancestral  experiences 
throws  light  on  most  cases,  and  perhaps  on  this  one 

iso. 

TASTE   AND    SMELL. — These   things   are    so   closely 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS      151 

connected  anatomically,  and  especially  functionally, 
that  investigations  on  the  one  or  the  other,  and 
pa,rticularly  on  taste,  at  a  very  early  stage,  are  at- 
tended with  great  difficulties  ;  accordingly  I  have  been 
very  cautious  in  drawing  conclusions,  and  have  thought 
it  better  to  place  the  first  beginnings  of  their  exercise 
too  late  rather  than  too  early.  Certain  it  is  that  both 
taste  and  smell  are  very  feeble  at  first  and  gradually 
developed.  Prior  to  the  opening  of  the  eyes  both  exist, 
but  in  feeble  degree.  The  diary  gives  all  the  facts  I 
have  to  communicate  on  the  subject. 

The  way  in  which  smell  calls  into  activity,  first  of 
all,  muscles  of  the  face  in  a  sleeping  puppy,  has  been 
very  frequently  brought  to  my  notice,  and  shows  how 
closely  afferent  and  efferent  nervous  paths  are  gener- 
ally related,  even  when  the  main  centres  concerned  are 
at  rather  distant  parts  of  the  brain.  The  nervous  im- 
pulses that  pass  to  the  brain  when  strong  enough,  soon 
spread  to  other  parts,  hence  the  puppy  is  not  long  in 
moving  its  limbs,  and,  it  may  be,  gets  up,  runs  about, 
cries,  etc., — all  these  complicated  movements  having 
been  brought  about,  and,  as  I  have  often  witnessed,  in 
a  sort  of  machine-like  way — the  animal  having  no 
clear  and  definite  features  before  it  at  the  first  moment, 
though,  no  doubt,  the  law  of  associative  nervous  and 
psychic  connections  complicates  this  more  and  more  as 
the  animal  widens  its  experiences  with  age.  As  illus- 
trating this  subject,  an  observation  of  mine  on  a  mature 
dog  is  worth  a  brief  recital.  The  subject  was  an  Irish 
setter  bitch  of  an  unusually  affectionate  nature.  I  had 
not  seen  her  for  some  months.  She  was  lying  ap- 
parently asleep  on  her  bench  in  a  large  dog  show. 
Upon  walking  up  to  her  stall,  and  standing  there  a  few 
seconds,  I  noticed,  the  eyes  being  closed,  movements  of 
the  nostrils  of  gradually  increasing  force,  then  evident 
sniffing,  next  a  raising  of  the  head,  opening  of  the  eyes^ 


152  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

with  first  of  all  a  dazed  sort  of  expression,  then  one  of 
great  surprise  and  enquiry,  followed  shortly  by  her 
throwing  herself  upon  me  with  a  bark,  almost  a  shriek 
of  joy.  She  passed  through  all  the  stages  the  puppy 
manifests,  but  with  those  added  ones  coming  from 
-enlarged  experience  and  a  richer  psychic  life. 

The  part  smell  plays  in  the  ordinary  and  extra- 
ordinary life  of  the  dog  is  a  most  interesting  and  by 
no  means  exhausted  subject,  which,  though  tempting 
to  pursue,  is  somewhat  aside  from  the  scope  of  the 
present  paper. 

As  illustrating  the  development  taste  undergoes  in  a 
few  days,  special  attention  is  called  to  the  accounts 
given  on  the  28th,  31st,  and  34th  days. 

Experiments  on  taste  might  have  been  made  at  an 
earlier  date,  but  this  omission  was  supplied  in  the  case 
of  another  litter  of  puppies  to  which  reference  will  be 
found  in  extracts  from  a  diary  introduced  later. 

Some  references  to  smell,  as  it  influences  habits,  even 
in  very  young  puppies,  have  been  referred  to  in  the 
diary. 

In  the  dog,  much  more  than  in  the  man,  are  smell 
and  taste  associated,  and  this  becomes  evident  in  the 
early  as  well  as  the  later  psychic  life  of  this  animal, 
as  shown  by  the  diary,  though  this  is  like  many  other 
features,  much  more  evident  to  the  one  who  daily 
associates  with  animals,  than  it  can  be  from  the  best 
description  it  is  possible  to  write. 

VISION. — Owing  to  the  gradual  opening  of  the  eyes, 
it  is  difficult  to  see  the  pupil,  and  to  make  observations 
on  the  reaction  of  the  iris  to  light.  Apart  from  this, 
the  record  of  the  development  of  vision  will,  it  is 
hoped,  be  found  pretty  complete. 

The  "  opening  of  the  eyes  "  is  really  a  separation  of 
the  lids,  which  are  practically  one  at  birth,  by  a  process 
of  growth  and  absorption  along  the  line  of  their  future 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS      153 

edges.  These  processes  take  a  few  days  for  completion, 
even  after  there  is  an  obvious  opening  between  the 
lids ;  and  it  is  very  doubtful  if  the  animal  sees  at  all) 
in  the  proper  sense  of  the  word,  until  the  lids  are 
completely  separated,  if  even  then ;  so  that  the  eyes 
being  open  is  in  itself  no  guarantee  that  the  animal 
sees,  or,  at  all  events,  more  than  light  and  shadows. 

The  slowness  of  reflex  winking  to  appear  in  puppies 
is  surprising,  the  more  so  as  mature  dogs  wink  very 
readily  when  any  object  is  brought  near,  or  moved 
before  the  eye. 

Quite  otherwise  is  it  with  mature  birds,  and  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  get  the  young  to  wink,  even  on 
touching  the  lids  in  some  cases  I  have  found. 

In  this,  and  a  former  litter  of  St  Bernards,  the  eyes 
began  to  open  on  the  llth  day,  and  in  a  litter  of 
Bedlington  terriers  on  the  same  day,  or  perhaps  a  little 
earlier.  One  writer  states  that  the  eyes  of  dogs  open 
on  the  8th  day.  I  have  never  seen  this,  and  do  not 
believe  it  holds  for  any  pure-bred  dogs,  at  all  events. 

But  individual  differences  show  to  the  extent  of  at 
least  twelve  hours. 

HEARING. — It  is  very  easy  to  be  deceived  in  this,  on 
account  of  motor  effects  resulting  from  concussion,  or 
from  contact  of  blasts  of  air  with  the  skin.  I  think 
however,  my  experiments  will  be  deemed  conclusive, 
and  the  record  of  the  development  of  this  sense  very 
full. 

There  comes  a  time,  as  I  have  noted,  when  the  young 
dog  is  more  affected  by  sounds  than  an  older  one, 
owing  to  the  less  perfect  development  of  his  cerebral 
cortex,  which  part  of  the  brain  is  associated  with  all 
higher  psychic  manifestations,  with  voluntary  move- 
ments, inhibitions,  etc.  To  this  the  lack  of  experience 
is  to  be  added,  for  till  the  dog  has  learned  better,  noises 
of  all  kinds  are  excitements  which  may  have  unpleasant 


154  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

associations  or  the  reverse.  The  mature  dog  has  em- 
bedded in  his  nervous  system  and  psychic  nature  a 
series  of  connections  which,  without  any,  reasoning 
answer  to  warn  him  or  the  reverse,  are  perfectly 
indifferent. 

However,  new  and  mysterious  sounds  may  alarm  a 
mature  dog  more  than  a  puppy. 

The  lower  animals  are  more  sensitive  to  concussions 
than  man,  as  shown  by  their  behaviour  prior  to  earth- 
quakes, when  there  are  slight  oscillations  of  the  earth, 
wholly  unperceived  by  man,  yet  causing  alarm  to  the 
domestic  animals. 

I  have  noticed  that  puppies  are  very  early  stimulated 
by  concussions,  but  regret  that  I  have  not  exact  ob- 
servations with  fixed  dates  to  report. 

One  of  the  earliest  indications  of  hearing  is  reflex 
movement  of  the  ears.  These  are  quite  distinct,  of 
course,  from  the  voluntary  movements  often  seen  in 
dogs  and  other  animals.  But  similar,  though  less 
marked,  movements  of  the  external  ears  may  be 
observed  in  man  also,  as  any  one  may  prove  by  asking 
an  individual  to  listen  and  determine  the  location  of 
a  tuning-fork  sounded  behind  him.  These  I  have  for 
many  years  been  accustomed  to  demonstrate  to  my 
classes  in  physiology,  though  I  have  not  noticed  that 
they  are  referred  to  in  books.  There  seems  to  be  no 
relation  between  the  extent  of  the  reflex  and  the 
voluntary  movements  of  the  ears,  of  which  some  people 
are  capable.  When  at  concerts  I  have  sometimes  ob- 
served them  in  great  numbers  and  variety. 

Another  matter  that  seems  to  have  received  scant 
attention,  if  I  may  judge  from  the  absence  of  printed 
references,  is  the  condition  of  the  ears  in  puppies  up 
to  a  certain  date.  At  birth  the  external  ear  is  turned 
back,  and  its  internal  aspect  strikes  one  by  its  relatively 
undifferentiated  character,  and  the  auditory  meatus  is 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS      155 

scarcely  to  be  recognised.  The  ear,  in  fact,  grows  and 
differentiates  after  birth  in  somewhat  the  same  way 
as  the  eyelids,  but  the  latter  are  invariably  in  advance, 
so  that  there  are  physical  reasons  for  the  deafness  of 
puppies.  Even  after  the  ear  seems  to  be  opened  up, 
the  introduction  of  a  fine  probe  is  impossible,  as  I  have 
shown. 

Psychic  manifestations  may  be  looked  at  from  so 
many  different  points  of  view,  and  the  correct  inter- 
pretation is  so  often  doubtful,  especially  in  the  lower 
animals,  one's  explanations  are  apt  to  be  so  artificial, 
narrow,  or  otherwise  imperfect,  that  I  shall,  under 
several  headings,  now  refer  to  the  early  development 
of  the  puppy. 

PLAY. — I  have  endeavoured  to  follow  very  closely 
the  development  of  the  play  instinct,  so  important  is  it 
as  a  means  of  physical  and  psychic  development,  as 
well  as  an  indication  and  an  index  of  the  latter — in  fact 
of  both.  The  reader  is  referred  to  records  of  the  13th, 
15th,  21st,  27th,  and  32nd  days  more  especially.  I 
have  felt  keenly  my  inability  to  record  all  that  I  have 
seen  in  this  connection,  not  to  mention  the  thoughts 
suggested,  which  lack  of  space  prevents  me  making 
even  an  attempt  to  indicate. 

What  is  play?  One  observes,  first  of  all,  that  the 
puppy  uses  its  mouth  generally  on  a  fellow,  then,  or 
simultaneously,  its  paws ;  but  soon  the  movements 
are  more  complicated,  prolonged,  and  accompanied  by 
various  vocal  expressions,  which  are  of  a  significance 
which  varies  with  the  age  of  the  puppy. 

There  is  not  the  slightest  attempt  at  play  during 
the  period  of  eye-closure. 

At  first,  playing  seems  to  arise  in  part  from  an 
excess  of  motor  energy  which  must  be  discharged, 
and  as  it  is  in  the  nature  of  the  dog  to  use  his  jaws 
so  much,  the  play  takes  the  special  form  of  biting ;  then 


156  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

the  mouth  is  naturally  assisted  by  the  forelimbs.  As 
locomotive  power  increases,  the  puppy  takes  to  walk- 
ing away  and  returning  to  the  attack,  then  running, 
jumping,  etc. 

Soon  he  begins  to  shake  objects,  pull  at  them, 
tear  them.  My  observations  show  conclusively  that 
the  movements  in  play  appear  in  the  order  of  the 
final  perfection  of  the  co-ordinated  movements  of  the 
animal  as  represented,  so  far  as  the  nervous  system 
is  concerned,  in  the  cerebral  cortex  by  well-defined 
centres.  I  am  now,  and  for  some  time  have  been, 
engaged  upon  experiments  which  show  that  the 
cortical  brain  centres  do  not  all  develop  at  the  same 
time,  but  in  a  certain  order,  a  fact  which  throws  a  flood 
of  light  on  the  psychic,  as  well  as  the  physical, 
development  of  animals. 

The  pleasure  of  play  is  that  of  movement  at  first. 
Later,  there  is  no  doubt  a  psychic  complexity  of  feeling 
not  known  to  the  very  young  puppy. 

Nevertheless,  the  observations  reported  on  the  26th 
and  33rd  days  would  seem  to  indicate  that  even  at 
this  early  age  the  puppy  has  some  sense  of  fun  or 
humour. 

SCEATCHING. — I  have  endeavoured  to  note  the  earliest 
attempts  at  this  act,  and  give  some  details  from  time 
to  time,  as  it  illustrates  several  points. 

I  should  be  disposed  to  regard  scratching  as  a 
hereditary  reflex  perhaps,  as  is  illustrated  by  the 
experiment  of  the  17th  day.  In  other  cases,  how- 
ever, the  element  of  will  does  enter  more  or  less  into 
this  act.  Even  an  adult  dog  will  move  his  leg  in  the 
air  in  harmony  with  scratching  irritation  against  his 
side — a  pure  reflex.  When,  as  noted  on  the  40th 
day,  the  puppy  turns  his  neck  so  as  to  adapt  the 
movements  of  the  leg,  and  the  position  of  the  parts 
to  be  scratched,  it  is  plain  that  we  have  here  the 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS      157 

element  of  will  as  well  as  a  fine  example  of  neuro- 
muscular  co-ordination. 

The  study  of  the  development  of  such  acts  as 
scratching,  and  that  next  to  be  referred  to,  are  very 
suggestive  and  instructive  to  the  physiologist  and 
psychologist.  I  call  special  attention  to  this  reflex 
and  its  psychic  effects  referred  to  in  the  diary  on 
the  17th  day,  and,  in  the  case  of  the  Bedlington 
terriers,  on  the  30th  day. 

WAGGING  OF  THE  TAIL. — The  tail  movements  of 
the  dog  are  so  expressive  that  the  history  of  their 
development,  and  the  analysis  of  their  meaning  at 
the  various  stages  of  the  evolution  of  his  life,  are 
of  more  than  ordinary  interest.  They  are  to  him 
what  words  are  to  mankind. 

It  is  notable  that  I  have  been  unable  to  be  positive 
as  to  the  existence  of  any  tail  movements  during  the 
period  when  the  eyes  are  unopened,  and  this  alone  is 
significant  of  the  relatively  low  state  of  development 
at  this  period.  The  reader  is  referred  to  the  records 
of  the  13th,  17th,  21st,  23rd,  28th,  31st,  35th,  and 
42nd  days  especially  for  notes  that  bear  on  this 
subject. 

These  movements,  positions,  etc.,  of  the  tail  have 
been  to  me  signs  of  great  significance,  but  I  will  leave 
the  reader  to  draw  his  own  conclusions.  Certain  it  is, 
they  are  characteristic  of  certain  stages  of  development, 
but  if  I  were  to  go  into  full  detail  in  reference  to  all 
they  have  suggested,  this  paper  would  become  of  in- 
ordinate length.  It  throws  not  a  little  light  on  this 
subject  to  remember  that  a  centre  for  tail  movements 
has  been  demonstrated  in  the  cerebral  cortex  of  the 
dog. 

SOCIABILITY. — Of  all  animals  known  to  us  the  dog 
is  the  most  sociable.  This  he  early  indicates  by  his 
tail,  the  expression  of  his  face,  his  attitudes,  locomotive 


158  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

movements,  voice,  etc.,  and  the  reader  is  referred  to  the 
diary  for  evidences  of  a  development  of  these  charac- 
teristics of  his  nature,  especially  as  regards  man,  a 
development  which  is  so  rapid,  after  the  30th  to 
40th  day,  that  the  puppy,  in  a  few  weeks,  has  become, 
in  this  respect,  very  like  a  mature  dog. 

FRIGHT. —  The  diary  contains  references  to  this 
subject  on  the  26th,  33rd,  37th,  39th,  etc.,  days.  After 
hearing  is  established,  fright  is  easily  caused  through 
that  sense,  and  apparently  much  more  readily  than 
through  vision  at  a  very  early  period.  At  this  time 
also  concussions,  as  such,  are  potent  in  producing  fear. 
I  regret  that  the  influence  of  concussions  was  not 
more  fully  tested  during  the  blind  period.  I  find 
that  the  Bedlington  terriers  were  thus  alarmed  on  the 
9th  day. 

Though  the  phenomena  witnessed,  when  a  puppy  a 
day  old  is  in  danger  of  slipping  off  a  surface  of  support, 
suggest  alarm  on  its  part,  I  question  whether  the  puppy 
is  possessed  of  enough  consciousness,  so  to  speak,  to 
experience  true  fright. 

VOICE. — Puppies  may,  and  usually  do,  cry  (in  a 
manner  scarcely  to  be  distinguished  from  a  kitten, 
so  that  mature  dogs  hearing  it,  bark,  thinking  cats  are 
about)  almost  as  soon  as  born.  Gradually  this  voice 
is  changed  to  that  which  is  characteristic  of  the  dog. 
Before  barking  in  any  form,  growling  in  sleep,  then  in 
play,  has  been  observed.  They  were  heard  to  bark  in 
sleep  before  doing  so  when  awake.  Such  use  of  the 
voice  is  reflex  or  similar  to  reflex  action. 

The  diary  contains  the  earliest  observed  use  of  the 
voice  in  various  ways  with  the  circumstances  stated, 
and,  among  others,  I  call  attention  to  the  records  for 
the  23rd,  27th,  35th,  42nd,  and  59th  days. 

It  will  be  noticed  again  that  there  is  no  proper  use  of 
the  voice  beyond  crying  during  the  blind  period,  and 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS      159 

that  there  is  a  development  of  growling  in  sleep, 
growling  when  awake,  barking  .(incipient  as  in  older 
dogs)  during  sleep,  probably  in  dreams,  barking  simply 
as  an  expression  of  surplus  of  energy,  barking  in 
wantonness,  etc.,  all  of  which  is,  like  the  wagging  of  the 
tail,  highly  characteristic  of  different  psychic  states. 

All  these  modes  of  expressions  are  to  be  witnessed 
with  precisely  the  same  interpretation  in  older  dogs  at 
times,  though,  of  course,  generally  the  meaning  of  their 
barking  and  growling  is  more  definite.  But  the  puppy 
persists  latent  in  the  dog,  just  as  does  the  boy  in  the  man. 

DREAMING. — Mature  dogs  do  undoubtedly  dream, 
and  if  one  may  judge  by  similar  use  of  the  voice  and 
like  general  behaviour,  puppies  do  also.  Leaving  out 
of  the  question  the  doubtful  evidence  of  growling  in 
sleep,  the  phenomena  reported  on  the  35th  day  seem  to 
point  to  dreaming,  for  the  behaviour  of  the  puppy  is 
very  similar  to  that  of  the  mature  dog. 

ANGER. — Much  of  the  play  of  dogs  is  mimic  fighting, 
even  from  the  first,  and  I  have  noted  on  the  27th  day, 
during  play,  a  very  brief  but  decided  exhibition  of  anger, 
such  as  may  occasionally  be  seen  among  mature  dogs, 
or  boys  even  of  eight  or  nine  years  of  age  during  rough 
play.  For  the  moment  anger  rules,  and  the  extent  to 
which  this  is  the  case,  and  especially  the  length  of  time 
over  which  it  lasts,  depends  greatly  on  the  breed  of  the 
dogs.  With  terriers  very  early  play  at  times  becomes 
serious,  and  later  it  may  so  often  become  fighting  that 
these  dogs  cannot  always  with  safety  be  left  together. 
In  few  respects  do  the  different  breeds  show  their 
characteristics,  or  at  so  early  an  age,  as  in  this.  For 
a  very  early  case  of  anger  (or  was  it  a  mere  reflex  ? ) 
see  the  record  of  the  17th  day,  and  for  a  clear  case  the 
record  of  the  terriers  on  the  30th  day. 

MEMORY. — In  a  sense  all  impressions  are  remembered, 
i.e.  the  state  of  the  nervous  system,  indeed  the  whole 


160  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

organism,  somatic  and  psychic,  is  dependent  on  im- 
pressions, ancestral,  pre-natal,  and  post-natal.  It  is 
simply  impossible  that  it  should  be  otherwise.  How- 
ever, in  the  more  restricted  sense  of  the  word  "  memory," 
a  good  instance  is  to  be  noted  in  the  behaviour  of  the 
puppy  that  was  accidentally  trodden  upon  by  me.  This 
occurred  on  the  47th  day,  and  up  to  the  date  of  the 
conclusion  of  the  diary,  on  the  60th  day,  it  was  very 
clear  that  he  remembered  this  unpleasant  event. 

Memory  is  very  retentive  in  dogs,  though  there  seem 
to  be,  in  this  respect,  as  much  individual  difference  as  in 
human  beings.  I  had  a  greyhound  that  could  not  see 
a  cat  on  the  street  without  giving  chase ;  and  he  would, 
after  many  months,  remember  the  identical  tree  up 
which  the  cat  climbed  when  he  was  in  pursuit.  This 
is,  moreover,  a  case  of  visual  memory  in  all  probability, 
as  it  is  not  likely  that  the  scent  from  the  cat  would 
remain  for  six  months. 

EECOGNITION. — From  several  experiments  recorded,  as 
the  result  of  introducing  other  bitches  into  the  same 
compartment  with  the  puppies,  the  reader  may  be  able 
to  draw  some  conclusions.  From  the  behaviour  of  the 
puppies  I  conclude  that,  at  the  time  of  the  later  experi- 
ments, the  fact  that  they  attempted  to  suck  the 
strangers  is  not  evidence  that  they  were  mistaken  for 
the  dam,  but  that  they  simply  had  such  a  desire  to 
suck  that  they  were  willing  to  accept  what  they  could 
get.  They,  in  one  instance,  gave  the  clearest  preference 
for  the  dam,  and  at  once,  guided  probably  by  sight 
chiefly,  for  dogs'  judgments  are  quickest  by  sight, 
though  often  corroborated  by  smell.  Smell  is  their 
surest  guide,  and  always  called  into  use  in  doubtful 
cases.  See  especially  the  record  for  the  36th  day.  Of 
course,  I  witnessed  evidence  for  my  conclusion,  which 
in  this,  and  other  cases,  it  is  not  possible  for  me  to  fully 
communicate  by  words 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS      161 

I  have  noticed  in  these  and  other  puppies  a  quick 
recognition  of  human  association  through  what  I  have 
termed  the  lip-call,  not  to  be  identified  with  any  other 
sound.  Is  this  the  result  of  heredity  to  any  extent, 
this  sound  having  been  used  more  than  any  other  in 
attracting  the  attention  of  dogs  ?  But  so  readily  are 
psychic  associations  formed  that  one  must  not  be  sure 
of  this.  The  dog,  above  all  our  domestic  animals,  is  a 
plastic  creature,  and  his  life  is  made  up  largely  of 
associative  reflexes  and  kindred  neuroses  with  corres- 
ponding psychoses.  This  principle  I  regard  as  a  key 
that  unlocks  more  of  the  secret  places  of  canine 
nature  than  perhaps  any  other,  unless  it  be  heredity 
itself. 

HUMOUR. — The  records  of  the  26th  and  33rd  days 
seem  to  show  that  even  such  young  puppies  appreciate 
fun  or  humour,  much  as  a  child  does,  and  this  can  be 
almost  daily  observed  in  mature  dogs. 

ATTENTION  AND  FATIGUE. — My  observations  on  these 
subjects,  some  of  which  I  have  attempted  to  record, 
show,  in  the  plainest  way,  how  very  readily  a  puppy  is 
fatigued,  but  also  indicate  a  gradual  improvement  in 
this  respect.  This  readiness  in  experiencing  fatigue 
explains  why,  moreover,  one  observer  may  be  led  to 
question  the  observations  of  another  on  very  young 
animals.  Again  and  again  have  I  failed  in  my  attempt 
to  get  the  same  result  on  repetition.  In  fact,  the  rule 
up  to  about  the  20th  day  was,  that  success  on  repetition 
of  certain  stimuli  was  very  doubtful  owing  to  fatigue. 

This  is  well  illustrated  in  the  case  of  the  growling 
reflex,  etc.  of  the  17th  day,  but  it  applies  to  all  the 
senses  and  the  whole  life  of  the  animal,  somatic  and 
psychic. 

For  this  reason  sleep  follows  at  once  on  the  exertion 
of  play,  with  its  physical  movements  and  its  sensory 
stimuli  tending  to  exhaust. 


162  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

Hence,  too,  the  necessity  of  abundance  of  sleep  in 
early  life  for  all  animals. 

How  important  that  this  state  of  things  should  be 
recognised  by  all  educators — in  fact,  all  who  have  to  do 
with  young  children,  to  whom  it  applies  equally  with 
dogs  and  other  young  animals  ! 

CONSCIOUSNESS. — The  dependence  of  consciousness 
on  sensory  impressions  is  readily  shown.  It  was  found 
that  bandaging  the  eyes  of  the  puppies  sufficed,  on  the 
18th  day,  to  quiet  them,  and  even  put  them  asleep,  when 
in  their  usual  environment  (pen). 

This  subject  is  evidently  closely  akin  to  the  previous 
ones.  While  these  relations  exist  all  through  life  their 
clearest  demonstration  is  in  the  young  animal. 

DREAMING. — If  mature  dogs  dream — and  of  this  there 
seems  no  reasonable  doubt — the  phenomena  witnessed 
in  the  puppies  on  the  35th  day  is  evidence  of  the  same 
state.  Growling  in  sleep  was  noted  as  early  as  the 
17th  day,  but  I  would  hesitate  to  refer  this  to  dream- 
ing— in  fact,  I  do  not  think  such  an  explanation  ap- 
plicable if  the  term  "  dreaming  "  be  used  in  the  same 
sense  in  which  it  would  apply  to  a  mature  dog  having 
a  vision  of  imaginary  events  that  arouse  feelings. 

WILL. — It  may,  perhaps,  be  doubted  if  there  be  any 
appreciable  exercise  of  will  proper  during  the  period 
when  the  eyes  are  unopened ;  but  on  the  17th  day, 
when  on  the  puppy's  ear  being  rubbed  gently,  he,  in 
addition  to  scratching,  puts  up  his  foreleg  occasionally, 
as  if  to  remove  the  source  of  irritation,  there  is  the 
appearance  of  volition.  At  first  reflex  and  voluntary 
action  are  much  mixed,  of  which  there  are  many 
examples  to  be  picked  out  from  the  diary,  but  in 
some  instances  cases  of  pure  volition  may  be  found, 
e.g.  when  on  the  20th  day  the  puppies  go  to  the  wall 
of  their  pen  and  attempt  to  get  over  it.  But  even  this 
is  to  me  by  no  means  so  clear  a  case  as  that  of  the  41st 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS      163 

day,  when  a  puppy  watches  a  fly  that  has  been  torment- 
ing him,  and  then,  steadying  his  head  deliberately,  snaps 
at  it  like  a  mature  dog. 

SUGGESTIVE  ACTIONS. — I  prefer  this  term  to  "  imita- 
tion," as  the  latter  has  become  associated,  in  most 
minds,  with  the  attempt  to  repeat  what  has  been  seen. 
In  dogs  the  first  imitative  action,  or  rather  suggestive 
action,  is  seen  in  play.  One  bites  the  other  gently,  and 
this  rouses  the  tendency  to  reciprocate.  It  comes 
before  all  visual  suggestive  action.  When  several 
mature  dogs  are  kept  together,  one  may  witness  daily 
many  interesting  examples  of  imitative  action.  It  has 
an  educative  effect  of  the  widest  influence  either  for 
good  or  evil  on  dogs.  Much  of  sheep-worrying,  etc.,  is 
the  result  of  suggestive  action,  and  is  not  spontaneous, 
except  in  so  far  as  it  is  natural  to  all  dogs  to  chase. 

In  the  puppy,  from  the  40th  day  onward,  suggestive 
action  is  very  common,  and  this  greatly  increases  the 
activity  and  hastens  the  psychic  progress  of  the 
members  of  a  litter  of  puppies,  as  compared  with  a 
single  young  dog  kept  apart. 

It  often,  I  have  noticed,  advances  a  puppy  of  a  few 
months  of  age  to  place  him  among  older  dogs ;  arid  this 
is  sometimes  followed  by  the  best  physical,  as  well  as 
psychic,  results,  especially  if  the  young  dog  be  allowed 
to  go  out  for  exercise  with  the  older  ones,  under 
direction,  of  course,  for  dogs  should  not  be  allowed  to 
roam  as  they  will  any  more  than  children.  They,  too, 
soon  learn  the  ways  of  the  street.  The  manner  in 
which  this  principle  of  suggestive  action  was  illustrated 
on  the  61st  day,  when  in  the  yard  among  the  older  dogs, 
was  very  striking. 

KESEMBLANCES  TO  THE  MATURE  DOG. — Every  ^animal 
is  what  it  is  by  reason  of  its  inherent  tendencies  as 
reacted  on  by  the  environment,  and  at  this  stage  it 
may  be  interesting  and  instructive  to  call  attention  to 


164  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

the  first  occasion  on  which  actions  suggestive  of  those  of 
older  dogs,  if  not  practically  identical,  were  manifested. 
The  reader  is  especially  referred  to  certain  records  on 
the  37th,  39th,  40th,  42nd,  43rd,  45th,  47th,  48th,  49th 
and  50th  days. 

Indeed,  after  the  50th  day,  these  resemblances  in 
behaviour  are  so  numerous,  or,  in  other  words,  the 
puppy  is  so  matured,  so  fully  equipped  psychically,  that 
much  less  interest,  or  at  all  events  importance,  attaches 
to  the  study  of  his  psychic  life. 

INFLUENCES  OF  ENVIRONMENT. — As  has  been  explained, 
when  in  the  young  puppy  the  eyes  are  closed,  he  is 
very  apt  to  fall  asleep,  and  if  all  the  stimuli  through  the 
sensory  organs  were  cut  off,  consciousness  would  be  re- 
duced to  a  minimum,  if  it  existed  at  all.  On  the  other 
hand,  as  illustrating  the  influence  of  the  environment, 
in  special  ways,  on  the  early  psychic  life  of  the  puppy, 
the  reader  is  referred  to  records  in  the  diary  on  the 
23rd,  26th,  33rd,  45th,  46th,  47th,  and  49th  days  among 
others.  There  is  not  space  for  comment. 

KEASONING. — I  do  not  propose  to  enter  into  the 
controversy  as  to  whether  animals  not  possessed  of 
articulate  language  can  reason,  or  whether  we  should 
name  the  process  corresponding  to  that  in  man, 
"  inference." 

That  man  can  reason  in  a  way  that  animals  lower 
in  the  scale  cannot,  is  certain,  but  that  much  that  we 
assume  to  be  of  a  higher  order  in  the  mind  of  man,  and 
perhaps  consider  reasoning  of  this  higher  order,  differs 
in  no  essential  point  from  psychic  processes  in  animals, 
I  am  convinced,  after  many  years'  close  observation 
alike  of  animals  and  man,  including  the  working  of  my 
own  mind,  which,  after  all,  is  the  final  court  of  appeal 
for  oneself.  When,  on  the  41st  day,  the  puppy 
scrapes  away  the  sawdust,  and  then  some  days  later, 
repeating  the  act,  tries  one  spot  with  the  head,  not 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS      165 

being  satisfied  paws  again  just  where  there  is  a  slight 
elevation  in  the  floor,  is  there  reasoning  ? 

When  on  nearly  every  occasion  on  seeing  me,  the 
puppy  that  had  been  trodden  on  retired  with  his  tail 
down,  and  an  appearance  of  dejection,  did  he  reason 
that  I  might  be  again  the  cause  of  some  unpleasant 
feelings  to  him  ? 

Two  evenings  since,  the  weather  being  intensely  hot, 
the  dam  of  these  puppies  was  allowed  to  sleep  on  a 
veranda  (more  airy)  of  the  house  instead  of  in  the 
kennel.  She  had  not  been  on  this  veranda  since  last 
summer.  At  a  late  hour  I  opened  the  door  leading 
from  the  veranda  into  the  yard,  and  invited  her  to 
come  out.  She  declined  to  do  so,  which  at  first 
surprised  me.  The  dog  did  not  wish  to  be  removed  to 
the  kennel,  and  this  was  borne  out  by  the  fact  that  on 
the  following  evening,  as  she  lay  on  the  same  veranda, 
opening  the  door  leading  to  the  yard,  and  at  the  same 
time  that  of  the  kitchen,  she  immediately  got  up  and 
walked  into  the  kitchen.  In  the  latter  she  had 
received  many  a  tit-bit.  Wherein  does  the  behaviour 
of  this  St  Bernard  bitch  differ  from  that  of  a  child  of, 
say,  five  years  of  age  who,  when  amid  his  play,  is  called 
by  his  mother,  but  silently  protesting  turns  quickly 
away  ?  Does  he,  before  turning,  formulate  any 
sentences  ?  He  can  do  so,  to  be  sure,  but  does  he — 
must  he  ?  Is  not  the  process,  or  series  of  processes,  in 
his  mind  closely  akin  to  those  in  the  mind  of  my  y 
St  Bernard  ? 

Is  the  behaviour  of  the  puppy  that  turns  away  when 
he  sees  me  different  from,  or  akin  to,  that  of  its  dam,  in 
the  circumstances  already  detailed  ? 

In  the  case  of  pawing  away  the  sawdust  there  seems 
to  be  the  recognition  of  a  cause,  yet  it  is  possible  to 
separate  this  mental  process  wholly  from  the  restless 
moving  about  of  an  animal  that  does  not  find  its  bed 


166  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

quite   comfortable,   and   which    certainly   requires   no 
"  reasoning  "  to  explain  ? 

ASSOCIATED  KEFLEXES. — When  referring  to  reflexes 
in  general,  I  omitted  to  call  attention  to  certain  pheno- 
mena which  seem  to  me  unquestionably  of  this  character, 
e.g.  on  the  23rd  day,  when  one  puppy  licks  the  other 
after  feeding,  as  is  always  the  case,  it  is  observed  to 
place  its  paws  on  the  head  of  the  other,  and  spread  the 
toes  exactly  as  in  sucking  the  mother,  when  it  places 
its  paws  against  the  mammary  glands,  and  so  in  other 
instances.  The  association  in  one  kind  of  use  of  the 
mouth  (sucking)  is  made  with  another  kind  as  licking, 
etc. 

EXPERIENCE. — Any  one  who  without  prejudice  watches 
any  young  animal,  cannot  fail  to  be  impressed  with  the 
readiness  with  which,  within  certain  natural  limits,  it 
profits  by  its  experience ;  and  this  is  one  of  the  lessons 
of  the  diary  of  these  puppies,  evident  in  all  directions, 
instinct  included.  As  one  instance,  among  many,  I 
refer  the  reader  to  the  advance  noted  in  regard  to  the 
bones  on  the  59th  and  61st  days,  and  the  entire  be- 
haviour of  the  puppies  in  the  yard,  on  "that  day.  The 
manner  in  which  they  acted,  as  if  they  were  well  ac- 
quainted with  the  yard,  the  various  ways  in  which  their 
movements  and  actions  suggested  the  old  dog,  illustrated 
to  me  in  a  way,  that  was  somewhat  of  a  surprise,  the 
readiness  with  which  they  availed  themselves  of  every 
experience,  and  quickly  worked  it  into  their  nature. 

THE  MYSTERIOUS. — That  dogs  do,  in  some  fashion, 
recognise  causation,  and  are  puzzled  by  its  apparent 
absence,  seems  to  be  beyond  doubt. 

The  earliest  manifestation  of  this  I  have  noted  on  the 
38th  day,  in  connection  with  dangling  a  bright  chain ; 
nevertheless,  this  is  not  to  my  mind  a  clear  case. 

INDIVIDUALITY. — From  time  to  time  reference  has 
been  made  to  individual  differences,  both  psychic  and 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS      167 

physical.  It  is  not.  easy  to  make  perfectly  evident  in  a 
diary  the  extent  to  which  individuality  is  shown,  but 
even  in  the  blind  period  it  exists,  and  to  a  close 
observer,  familiar  with  dogs,  and  the  particular  breed 
being  studied,  it  shows  itself  in  a  variety  of  ways,  often 
it  may  be  difficult  to  describe  in  words.  Sometimes, 
when  but  a  few  weeks  old,  a  puppy  foreshadows  his 
future  in  an  unmistakable  way. 

PERIODS  OF  DEVELOPMENT. — A  study  of  the  diary 
will  show  that  the  two  great  periods  are :  that  before 
the  eyes  are  open,  and  that  succeeding  this  one.  The 
time  between  the  opening  of  the  eyes,  and  the  establish- 
ment of  real  vision  and  hearing,  constitutes  a  transition 
or  intermediate  period. 

Development  is  very  slow  in  the  first  period,  and 
existence  almost  a  vegetative  one,  yet  not  wholly  so,  for 
by  the  skin,  the  muscular  sense,  to  some  extent,  by  taste 
and  smell,  by  visceral  sensations,  etc.,  the  animal's 
nervous  centres  are  being  modified. 

The  intermediate  period  is  marked  by  a  considerable 
advance,  though  slow,  as  compared  with  the  progress 
made  within  the  next  few  days. 

The  period  between  about  the  17th  and  the  45th  day 
is  that  of  greatest  importance  in  the  life  of  the  dog. 

After  that  there  is  constant  improvement,  from  ex- 
perience, up  to  the  60th  day,  and  this  is  well  marked — 
more  so  than  at  any  later  time,  but  it  is  not  of  equal 
importance  with  that  preceding. 

These  periods  glide  into  one  another,  and  many  others 
might  be  interpolated,  but  I  desire  to  avoid  artificiality, 
which  is  sure  to  result  from  the  attempt  at  numerous 
divisions  of  any  kind. 

There  is  not  the  sharp  line  of  difference  between  the 
dog  and  other  animals,  before  the  eyes  are  opened  and 
afterwards,  which  some  writers  would  have  us  believe, 
though  between  the  animal,  when  it  can  neither  see  nor 


168  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

hear,  and  the  same  animal  ten  days  afterwards,  there  is 
indeed  a  vast  difference.  But  as  to  the  rate  and  nature 
of  development  the  reader  may  draw  his  own  con- 
clusions, and  to  enable  him  to  do  so  has  been  my  chief 
object  in  giving  a  record  of  facts  so  detailed  and  as  free 
from  gaps  and  omissions  as  possible.  I  am  convinced, 
moreover,  that  the  whole  difference  in  the  periods  referred 
to  is  not  to  be  referred  merely  to  the  presence  or  absence 
of  vision  and  hearing. 

About  this  time  the  whole  nature  of  the  animal  seems 
to  undergo  a  comparatively  sudden  leap  forward  in 
advancement,  possibly  as  the  result  of  the  accumulated 
experiences  of  ages  acting  through  heredity — I  mean 
that  the  advances  directly  referable  to  the  advent  of 
seeing  and  hearing  would  tend  to  accumulate  by 
heredity,  and  to  be  expressed  in  the  organism  in  time 
in  a  more  decided  manner. 

GENERAL. — The  preceding  are  a  few  of  the  many 
aspects  of  the  psychic  (and  physical)  development  pre- 
sented within  the  first  sixty  days  of  existence  of  puppies. 
I  deprecate  hard  and  fast  lines  of  demarcation  in  biology 
and  psychology,  believing  that  in  nature  one  thing,  as  a 
rule,  glides  into  another  at  some  stage  of  development,  at 
all  events.  My  commentary  on  the  diary  is,  therefore, 
not  claimed  to  be  complete,  if  indeed  it  is  possible 
to  recognise  all  that  there  is  in  psychic  development, 
however  closely  one  may  observe,  however  perfectly 
analyse. 

PHYSICAL  CORRELATION. — Already,  for  some  years,  the 
relations  of  mind  and  body  have  been  recognised  in  a 
general  way,  and  studied  with  results  of  definite  value ; 
but  while  there  have  been  isolated  experiments  and 
observations  made  on  young  animals  bearing  on  the 
relation  between  physical  development  and  the  psychic 
status,  I  am  not  aware  that  any  complete  and  systematic 
study  of  the  subject  has  been  attempted.  That  the  mind 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS 

and  the  body  must  be  studied  together  will,  I  am  satis- 
fied, become  more  and  more  evident  as  investigations  on 
the  one,  independently  of  the  other,  prove  disappointing. 
This  applies  more  particularly,  no  doubt,  to  the  mind,  but 
not  wholly.  While  to  a  practised  observer  very  many 
shades  of  change  in  physical  developments  may  be 
observed,  there  is  no  good  method  of  measuring  most  of 
them,  and  it  is  more  than  difficult  to  express  much  of 
what  is  observed  in  a  way  to  make  it  appreciable  by 
the  mind  of  the  reader. 

Until  our  knowledge  of  the  relations  between  the 
mind  and  the  body — between  the  history  of  the  body 
and  that  of  the  mind — between  ontogeny  and  psychogeny 
(psychogenesis)  is  made  very  much  more  complete,  it 
would  appear  that  it  is  desirable  that  a  contemporaneous 
account  be  kept  of  every  change  of  whatever  kind 
observed,  both  physical  and  psychic. 

We  dare  scarcely  say  that  matters  so  apparently 
trivial  as  the  change  in  colour  of  the  iris,  or  as  the 
pigmentation  of  the  nose,  for  example,  are  in  no  relation 
whatever  with  psychic  development. 

Has  the  eruption  of  the  teeth  in  the  puppy  no 
relation  to  psychic  growth  and  development?  In 
itself  the  direct  causal  relation  from  increasing  experi- 
ence thus  afforded  by  their  use  is  not  all,  and  there  is 
doubtless  in  this  more  than  we  are  in  a  position  to 
define  as  yet.  As  soon  as  the  teeth  appear,  and  the 
jaws  are  more  used,  as  is  now  the  tendency,  the  puppy 
advances  in  consequence  of  this  very  use  of  teeth  and 
jaws,  but  this  is  probably  not  the  whole  story. 

From  the  chief  diary,  and  the  comments  on  it,  the 
reader  will  be  able  to  cull  many  instances  of  psychic 
and  physical  correlations.  Between  the  physical 
changes  in  the  eye  and  ear  especially,  and  the  psychic 
results,  the  closest  relation  is  evident,  and  this  should 
suggest  that  similar  close  connection  exists  elsewhere. 


170  ANIMAL    INTELLIGENCE 

While  the  puppy  sprawls  in  the  blind  period,  he  cannot 
investigate  objects,  and  we  find,  as  the  sensory  organs 
advance  in  development,  the  animal's  locomotor  power 
increases,  so  that  he  can  the  better  use  all  his  senses, 
hence  the  great  strides  he  makes  in  development  from 
one  part  undergoing  a  change  which  adapts  it  to  the 
well-being  of  other  parts  and  the  entire  organism. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  motor  power  is,  in  the  young 
animal,  a  very  fair  guide  to  its  general  advancement, 
and  in  tracing  the  development  of  the  puppy  one  notices 
this  daily. 

There  is  a  certain  order  of  progress  :  first  the  tongue 
laps,  etc.,  as  in  sucking ;  then  after  the  eruption  of 
teeth,  use  of  the  jaws  at  the  same  time ;  and  more  so 
later  the  movements  of  the  fore-limb — long,  in  fact 
always,  in  advance  of  the  hind-limb — the  tail  soon 
taking  a  share  in  the  movements. 

These  movements  not  only  increase  in  power,  but  in 
precision,  i.e.  they  are  co-ordinated,  and  this  is  well 
illustrated  by  many  facts  stated  in  the  diary. 

These  movements,  the  development  of  the  senses, 
etc.,  etc.,  are  of  course  impossible  without  the  nervous 
system,  and  they  gain  in  precision  and  variety,  accord- 
ing to  the  rate  and  extent  to  which  the  cortex  of  the 
cerebrum  is  developed  into  functional  activity.  My 
own  experiments  on  the  brains  of  young  animals  are 
not  yet  complete,  so  that  I  shall  not  here  refer  to  them 
further  than  to  state  that  they  bear  out  the  view  just 
stated.  During  the  blind  period  the  cerebral  cortex  is 
found  to  be  unexcitable,  while  in  the  mature  dog  move- 
ments of  definite  groups  of  muscles  may  be  readily 
obtained  by  stimulation  of  the  cortex. 

DIFFERENCES  IN  BREEDS.  —  Both  physically  and 
psychically  there  are  differences  in  development  in 
the  various  breeds  of  dogs. 

I    found    that    the    litter    of    Bedlington    terriers 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS     171 

developed  much  faster  psychically  than  St  Bernards, 
and  they  also  mature  earlier,  physically  and  otherwise, 
a  remark  that  applies  to  the  smaller  breeds  of  dogs 
generally. 

They  sooner  show,  especially  in  movements,  a  great 
superiority,  which  strengthens  the  opinion  I  have 
expressed,  that,  among  animals,  the  degree  of  advance- 
ment in  co-ordinated  movements  is  a  fairly  good  guide 
to  psychic  progress  at  early  periods. 

WHAT  REMAINS  TO  BE  DONE. — I  am  now  anxious, 
as  all  my  work  has  been  done  on  pure-bred  dogs,  to 
study  a  litter  of  mongrels. 

It  has  been  thought  well  to  confine  this  paper  to  the 
study  of  the  early  development  of  dogs. 

I  can  see  the  desirability  of  supplementing  this  paper 
by  the  account  of  some  one  dog  from  birth  to  maturity, 
and  possibly  I  may  be  able  to  do  this. 

I  purpose  following  this  paper  by  another  similar 
one  on  tfce  development  of  other  animals  in  the  earlier 
periods  of  existence,  considerable  material  for  which 
has  already  been  accumulated,  so  that  I  hope  in  time 
to  get  the  facts  in  such  form,  that  broad  and  sound 
conclusions  as  to  development  of  young  animals  may  be 
drawn. 

As  the  dog,  after  the  monkeys  and  apes,  more  closely 
resembles  man  psychically  than  any  other  animal,  it 
seems  to  me  that  it  would  be  very  profitable  to  attempt 
a  comparison  of  the  development  of  the  young  dog 
and  the  infant.  But  Ihis  task  must  also  be  deferred. 

For  various  reasons  I  have  not  referred  in  detail  to 
the  fragmentary  work  of  others,  chiefly  because  the 
original  papers  are  not,  in  most  cases,  accessible  to  me 
now,  and  because  prolonged  discussions  and  com- 
parisons with  their  results  would  add  to  the  length  of 
an  already  long  paper.  I  present  my  observations  with 
such  conclusions  as  I  have  tried  to  draw  cautiously, 


172  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

and  without  prejudice,  believing  that,  whatever  their 
defects,  they  constitute  the  most  complete  account  of 
the  subject,  published  to  date. 

SOME  CONCLUSIONS. — The  dog  is  born  blind  and 
deaf.  He  possibly  smells  and  tastes  feebly,  but  this 
is  difficult  of  demonstration  ;  but  in  any  case  he  smells, 
tastes,  has  tactile  and  muscular  sensations,  the  tempera- 
ture sense,  and  can  experience  pain  before  he  can 
either  see  or  hear. 

The  eyes  are  open  before  the  ears,  but  seeing  objects 
does  not  correspond  in  time  with  the  opening  of  the 
eyelids,  which  is  gradual,  the  result  of  processes  of 
growth  and  absorption.  Hearing  follows  sooner  on 
complete  opening  of  the  ears  than  seeing  on  opening  of 
the  eyes. 

There  is  progressive  improvement  in  both  seeing  and 
hearing. 

Both  begin  about  the  17th  day,  and  are  in  a  high 
state  of  perfection  about  the  30th  day,  hearing  being, 
upon  the  whole,  rather  more  rapid  in  development. 

Smell  and  taste  are  demonstrable  on  the  13th  day, 
and  are  well  developed  about  the  30th  day. 

Newly  born  dogs  are  very  much  affected  unfavour- 
ably by  a  temperature  below  a  certain  moderate  point 
(50°  or  60°  F.),  and  are  capable  from  the  first  of  such 
movements  as  enable  them  to  avail  themselves  of  the 
heat  from  the  mother's  body. 

They  give  evidence  of  feeling  hunger,  and  are  capable 
of  making  certain  slow  movements  at  birth. 

They  find  the  teats  chiefly,  if  not  wholly,  by  touch, 
and  continue  sucking  in  consequence  of  the  satisfaction 
of  the  appetite  for  food. 

Up  to  about  the  20th  day  puppies  are  very  readily 
fatigued,  and  incapable  of  attention  to  anything  for 
more  than  a  very  few  seconds  at  one  time. 

They  early   show   an  appreciation   of   any   decided 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS     173 

change  in  the  environment,  indicating  that  experience, 
even  in  the  earliest  days,  is  not  lost  on  them.  In  other 
words,  the  environment  does  and  must  act  on  the 
nervous  system,  with  results  that  manifest  themselves 
if  in  no  more  definite  way,  at  least  in  this  :  that  new 
experiences  (stimuli)  cause  comfort  or  discomfort,  as 
evidenced  by  quiescence  or  wriggling,  cries,  etc. 

Co-ordinated  muscular  movements  appear  in  greatest 
perfection  in  a  certain  order,  viz.  mouth  and  head 
parts,  fore-limbs,  hind-limbs,  tail,  etc. 

These  seem  to  be  related  to  the  order  of  development 
of  the  centres  of  the  cerebral  cortex. 

The  epochs  most  differentiated  from  each  other  in 
the  psychic  and  somatic  life  of  the  dog  are  (1)  that 
prior  to  the  opening  of  the  eyes,  and  (2)  that  subse- 
quent to  this  event. 

The  former  suggests  intra-uterine  life  by  its  negative 
character,  and  is  well  marked  off  from  the  period  that 
follows,  the  more  numerous  avenues  of  knowledge  exist- 
ing, and  their  utilisation,  and  in  other  respects  not  well 
understood,  of  the  latter  period.  In  other  words,  the 
animal,  after  this  period,  can  come  more  fully  in  con- 
tact with  environment,  with  corresponding  results  in  its 
development.  It  seems,  besides,  more  impelled  to  do 
so ;  there  is  more  vim  in  its  whole  nature.  A  transi- 
tion period  between  the  time  when  the  eyes  and  ears 
begin  to  open,  and  when  the  animal  actually  sees 
objects  and  hear  sounds,  may  also  be  recognised. 

The  era  of  most  rapid  and  most  important  develop- 
ment is  subsequent  to  the  period  when  seeing  and 
hearing  are  established — when  the  animal  is  in  posses- 
sion of  all  its  senses,  etc.  This  extends  between  the 
20th  and  the  45th  day  approximately. 

Suggestive  action,  beginning  perhaps  with  the  first 
manifestations  of  .the  play  instinct,  has,  especially  as 
time  passes,  a  very  important  share  in  determining  the 


174  ANIMAL    INTELLIGENCE 

direction  of  development,  and  what  manner  of  dog  the 
individual  becomes.  It  is  education  in  the  more 
limited  sense. 

The  order  of  development  of  the  senses  and  co- 
ordinated movements  as  well  as  reflexes,  and  the  mani- 
festation and  perfecting  of  instincts,  have  a  distinct 
relation  to  the  needs,  as  well  as  the  general  develop- 
ment of  the  animal,  e.g.  smell  is  always  more  impor- 
tant to  the  dog  than  any  of  his  other  senses,  and  it  is 
early  developed.  The  same  remark  applies  to  the 
movements  of  the  jaws  and  the  limbs  over  those  of 
other  parts. 

The  detailed  study  of  the  development  of  the  dog,  as 
recorded  in  the  foregoing  pages,  illustrates  how  depen- 
dent all  subsequent  advancement  is  on  the  early  and 
full  development  of  the  senses  and  co-ordinated  move- 
ments. They  bring  the  nervous  centres  into  contact, 
so  to  speak,  with  the  environment. 

The  same  is  illustrated  in  the  study  of  the  human 
infant ;  but  in  the  case  of  the  dog  the  investigation  is 
not  surrounded  by  the  same  complications  or,  at  all 
events,  prejudices. 

Although  it  is  not  possible  as  yet  to  determine  the 
physical  and  psychic  correlations  down  to  the  minutest 
details,  from  what  has  been  accomplished;  it  seems 
reasonable  to  hope  that  a  complete  correlation  may  be 
ultimately  established. 

The  first  sixty  days  of  a  dog's  existence  are  of  so 
much  more  consequence  than  any  later  period,  that  the 
writer  has  decided  to  limit  this  paper  to  this  period, 
within  which  almost  all  important  features  in  develop- 
ment appear. 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS      175 


II— THE  CAT. 

THE  present  paper  is  a  continuation  of  that  series  on 
the  psychic  development  of  animals,  or  psychogenesis, 
the  first  part  of  which  appeared  in  the  Transactions  of 
the  Royal  Society  of  Canada  for  1894. 

As  the  desirability,  purpose,  and  scope  of  such 
investigations  have  been  set  forth  in  the  paper  on  the 
dog,  just  referred  to,  no  lengthened  introduction  will 
be  necessary  in  the  present  instance. 

The  records  were  made  under  more  favourable 
circumstances,  and  are  more  extensive  and  complete 
than  those  concerning  any  other  animal  that  I  have,  up 
to  the  present,  been  able  to  study. 

The  kitten  seems  to  me  to  have  been  one  of  more 
than  ordinary  interest,  and  though  the  observations 
extend  over  135  days,  had  the  animal  not  disappeared, 
I  should  have  continued  my  records. 

The  diary  will  tell  to  each  reader  its  own  story,  and 
I  shall  therefore  make  the  observations  upon  it  some- 
what brief  and  suggestive,  rather  than  attempt  to 
exhaust  the  lessons  it  teaches,  and  as  this  paper  will 
be  followed  by  one  in  which  the  dog  and  the  cat  will 
be  compared,  there  is  additional  reason  for  making  the 
notes  upori  the  records,  and  the  part  of  the  paper 
devoted  to  conclusions  from  the  observations,  briefer 
than  they  might  otherwise  be. 

The  readers  who  peruse  the  first  of  the  series,  and 
the  subsequent  papers,  will  naturally  derive  more 
profit — whatever  that  may  be — from  the  present  paper. 

Diary. 

The  following  notes  were  made  on  a  litter  of  kittens, 
the  parents  of  which  were  ordinary  domestic  cats. 


176  ANIMAL    INTELLIGENCE 

They  were  born  29th  July  1894,  and  came  first 
under  my  personal  observation  two  days  later. 

2nd  day. — Eyes  and  ears  closed.  No  evidence  of 
hearing  on  sounding  a  shrill  dog- whistle,  etc. 

Kubbed  hands  well  on  a  St  Bernard  and  a  beagle 
dog  and  placed  them  near  the  nose  of  one  of  the 
kittens.  It  sniffed  and  became  uneasy,  but  did  not  hiss. 

The  beagle  was  induced  to  lie  down  and  the  kitten 
placed  against  its  belly  (male  dog).  The  kitten  turned 
away. 

With  a  view  to  testing  taste,  salt,  sugar,  and  aloes  in 
solution,  as  well  as  cow's  milk,  are  used.  Kitten  sucks 
a  feather  dipped  in  solution  of  sugar,  but  manifests  no 
sign  of  disgust  when  aloes  is  substituted.  There  is 
uncertainty  as  to  salt  and  milk. 

As  to  smell,  aloes  and  iodoform  brought  near  the  nose 
cause  the  kitten  to  open  the  mouth  and  show  signs  of 
disgust.  Blistering  fluid  (liquor  epispasticus)  and 
strong  carbolic  acid  produce  the  same  effects  in  a  minor 
degree. 

When  milk  is  presented  no  attempt  is  made  to  lap  it. 

When  I  try  to  introduce  milk  into  the  mouth  with 
my  finger,  the  kitten  uses  its  fore-paws  to  remove 
finger. 

At  present,  the  animal  may  be  said  to  crawl  rather 
than  walk.  It  shows  great  uneasiness  when  it  gets  near 
the  edge  of  a  table,  and  holds  on  vigorously  with  its 
claws,  manifesting  uneasiness  by  its  cries.  Eemoval 
from  its  ordinary  environment  of  comfort  also  results 
in  crying. 

When  the  end  of  a  glass  pestle,  heated  to  a  degree 
uncomfortable  to  the  human  skin,  is  placed  against  the 
sole  of  the  kitten's  foot,  withdrawal  follows. 

Gentle  touching  of  the  mouth  or  nose,  especially  the 
inner  surface  of  the  nostrils,  leads  to  a  decided 
retraction  of  the  head. 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS     177 

It  seems  to  require  a  good  sharp  pinch  to  cause 
withdrawal  of  a  part  in  a  way  to  indicate  pain,  and  the 
latent  period  is  notably  long. 

6th  day. — Evidence  that  iodoform  is  perceived  at  a 
J  inch,  blistering  fluid  at  a  £  inch,  carbolic  acid  at 
1  inch,  and  aloes  at  2  inches. 

The  kitten  manifests  a  desire  to  escape  from  salt  and 
aloes  but  not  from  sugar. 

Moves  better ;  makes  an  attempt  to  crawl  out  of  a 
small  basket  which  is  lying  half  tilted  over. 

The  same  sort  of  a  pinch  as  before  causes  more 
decided  movement  with  a  shorter  latent  period. 

The  kitten  shows  no  less  uneasiness,  but  rather  more, 
when  brought  near  the  edge  of  the  table. 

At  a  distance  of  4  inches  from  the  beagle  dog  the 
kitten  opens  its  mouth  and  spits.  When  the  hands  are 
rubbed  on  the  beagle,  and  brought  near  the  nose  of  the 
kitten,  the  same  thing  happens,  but  the  hands  must  be 
brought  within  1  inch  of  the  nose ;  and  the  animal 
seems  to  mind  it  less  and  less,  though  this  is  not  so 
manifest  when  brought  near  the  dog.  It  still  turns 
away  from  the  belly  of  the  dog  when  laid  against  it. 

8th  day. — Eyes  begin  to  open  in  two  of  the  three 
kittens. 

When  I  make  a  loud  hissing  noise  the  kitten  with 
the  open  eyes  opens  its  mouth  and  hisses,  and,  when 
the  loudness  of  the  noise  is  suddenly  increased,  its  jaws 
snap  together  audibly. 

The  use  of  the  dog-whistle  is  followed  by  uneasy  but 
not  sudden  movements  of  all  three  kittens.  No  sudden 
movements  of  the  ears  in  reaction  to  sound  at  present, 
though  they  evidently  hear. 

9th  day. — The  eyes  of  one  of  the  kittens  still  not 
open. 

Two  of  the  kittens  tested  seem  to  smell  equally  well 
iodoform  at  f  inch,  carbolic  acid  at  1  inch,  blistering 

M 


178  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

fluid  at  1|  inch.  Dislike  manifested  by  turning  the 
head  away  and  putting  up  the  paw  to  nose,  as  if  to  push 
away  something.  The  mouth  is  also  opened. 

Kitten  licks  with  evident  pleasure  at  some  candy. 
It  licks  at  salt  also,  but  soon  shows  disgust.  Aloes 
give  a  doubtful  reaction. 

When  the  foot  is  pinched  the  kitten  now  cries  out 
sharply. 

There  is  a  noticeable  improvement  in  locomotor 
action. 

It  is  impossible  for  me  to  convince  myself  that  any 
of  the  kittens  see.  There  is  a  strong  tendency  to  keep 
the  eyes  closed  a  good  part  of  the  time.  The  winking 
reflex  is  not  produced  by  moving  objects  before  the 
eyes,  but  follows  only  when  the  hairs  of  the  lids  are 
reached,  or  the  lids  themselves,  or  some  other  part  of  the 
face  or  the  head  is  touched. 

On  the  other  hand,  both  a  sharp  sound  from  the  whistle 
and  a  loud  sound,  imitative  of  a  bark,  causes  the  kittens 
to  start,  but  a  hissing  sound  affects  them  most,  and  at  a 
distance  of  3  to  4  feet  will  cause  them  to  open  the 
mouth  and  hiss. 

The  ears  now  move  reflexly  to  sound,  but  turn 
towards  the  point  from  which  sound  comes,  or,  at  all 
events,  towards  the  side  rather  than  straight  back,  as 
in  dogs,  or  as  in  rabbits,  etc. 

Quivering  of  the  ears  is  noticed,  but  the  cause  is  not 
obvious.  They  turn  to  the  quarter  from  which  sound 
comes. 

Wth  day. — No  clear  evidence  of  power  to  distinguish 
objects  by  the  eyes  as  yet.  The  ears  are  noticed  to 
move  without  any  apparent  stimulus.  The  quivering 
still  continues.  With  each  mew  the  kitten  shuts  its 
eyes. 

A  sharp  whistle  causes  the  animal  to  start,  but  the 
ears  move  but  little.  The  kittens  crawl  rather  than 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS      179 

walk  yet,  though  the  pace  is  increased.     There  is  some 
amount  of  tail  movement. 

llth  day. — Two  of  the  kittens  give  evidence  of 
seeing,  though  one  rather  better  than  the  other.  The 
eyes  are  now  well  open.  Seem  to  see  at  10  to  12  inches' 
distance,  though  the  evidence  of  this  is  not  conclusive. 
Winking  reflex  on  movement  of  the  fingers  before  the 
eye  at  a  J  inch  or  a  little  more. 

They  can  now  cry  with  a  relatively  loud  voice. 

On  testing  taste  with  aloes,  disgust  is  very  plainly 
shown. 

Ears  seem  to  be  moved  voluntarily.  The  quivering 
continues. 

12th  day. — When  cooked  beefsteak  is  held  within 
1  inch  of  the  nose  it  is  smelt,  as  evidenced  by  sniffing, 
etc. 

When  held  near  the  nose  of  another  it  hisses. 
Neither  shows  any  desire  to  secure  the  morsel.  When 
placed  in  the  mouth  of  one  of  them  it  is  allowed  to 
drop  out. 

The  pupil  is  now  observed  to  act,  and  there  is 
intolerance  of  strong  light.  The  eyes,  however,  are 
not  quite  free  from  irritation. 

Very  sensitive  to  touching  by  hand  anywhere  about 
the  head.  This  was  noticed  in  attempting  to  cut,  ever 
so  gently,  hairs  on  the  head  with  scissors. 

Kitten  turns  to  right  or  left  as  sound  comes  from  one 
side  or  the  other.  Sometimes  hisses, 

Still  walks  badly  with  hind  legs. 

13th  day. — From  this  date  only  one  kitten  observed. 

Is  disturbed  by  iodoform  at  2  inches  from  nose. 
The  impression  seems  to  be  somewhat  lasting.  When 
aloes  is  within  f  inch  of  the  nose  the  kitten  hisses. 

Pupils  vary  readily  with  the  amount  of  light. 

Winking  reflex  as  before. 

It  appears  as  if  it  moves  its  own  head  in  response  to 


180  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

movements  of  the  head  or  body  of  an  observer  at 
2  to  3  feet,  but  there  is  some  doubt  about  this. 

When  lifted  from  its  basket  and  placed  on  a  table, 
the  creature  manifests  uneasiness  and  cries,  as  has  been 
the  case  from  the  first. 

Now  walks  a  little  better. 

14:th  day. — When  a  small  piece  of  cooked  liver  is 
held  near  the  nose  it  licks  its  lips.  When  the  liver 
or  milk  is  put  against  the  tongue  there  is  no  evidence 
of  taste. 

Now  follows  the  finger  at  10  to  12  inches. 

15th  day. — A  small  dog  goes  up  to  the  basket  in 
which  a  kitten  is  lying.  It  hisses  owing  to  smelling 
the  dog  (not  seeing).  When  out  of  the  basket  does  the 
same  at  4  to  6  inches. 

Walks  in  about  a  three-quarters  erect  position. 

16^  day. — Is  seen  for  the  first  time  to  lick  its  paw. 

The  kitten  and  its  mother  brought  into  the  house,  and 
placed  in  a  box  about  16  inches  long,  12  broad,  and 
9  high,  made  comfortable  by  a  flannel  covering  on 
the  bottom.  This  box  was  placed  within  a  few  feet 
of  where  I  usually  sit  in  my  study,  so  that  observations 
were  easily  and  frequently  made. 

Kitten  uses  fore-paws  when  sucking  to  press  on 
mammary  glands  of  mother.  It  often  sleeps  apart 
from  the  old  cat  now.  Its  growth  begins  to  be  rapid. 

Is  seen  to  use  right  hind-leg  to  scratch  ear  and  head 
on  several  occasions,  and  before  stopping  makes  similar 
movements  without  touching  body. 

On  holding  a  small  object  within  9  inches  or  less  in 
the  box  it  hisses  feebly.  Is  seen  to  be  biting  gently  at 
the  lower  woollen  covering  in  the  bottom  of  the  box. 
This  is  the  first  indication  of  play,  or  something  closely 
akin  to  it,  that  has  been  noticed. 

17th  day — Kitten  follows  with  its  eyes  a  small  object 
at  2  feet  distant,  and  later,  my  copy  of  a  journal 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS      181 

(11  by  8J  inches)  at  4  feet.  Is  able  to  locate  whether 
a  light  "  Hist ! "  is  uttered  on  the  right  or  left. 

Licks  its  paws  occasionally. 

Sleeps  a  great  deal. 

18th  day. — Seems  to  be  following  with  its  eyes  the 
movements  of  a  fly  at  4  to  6  inches. 

Turns  to  bite  at  objects  and  puts  paws  together — a 
sort  of  feeble  attempt  at  play. 

Climbs  up  side  of  box  to  the  top  and  then  cries,  as 
though  desiring  to  get  out. 

On  calling  "  Puss !  puss ! "  softly,  at  about  3  feet, 
the  kitten  turns  toward  the  sound  and  moves  the  ear 
nearest  to  it. 

A  piece  of  cooked  meat  is  held  near,  but  no  special 
effect  is  noticed. 

At  5.15  P.M.  the  kitten  is  seen  to  be  plainly  follow- 
ing flies  with  the  eyes  at  18  inches,  and  slightly  raises 
paw  in  an  attempt  to  catch  them. 

Licks  its  own  paw,  and  then  licks  mother's  leg  which 
is  close  to  it. 

In  the  evening  it  gets  lively  and  makes  attempts  at 
play,  and  crawls  over  the  mother,  biting  at  her  and 
itself  (play). 

The  nose  is  now  getting  pigmented. 

19th  day. — At  11  P.M.  to-day  follows  finger  by 
lamplight  at  4  to  5  feet,  climbs  upon  mother,  and  sleeps 
there. 

20th  day. — When  "Puss!  puss!"  is  called  to-day, 
the  kitten  hisses  softly  (surprise). 

There  is  now  nearly  always  a  distinct  movement  of 
the  ear  towards  the  direction  of  sounds. 

Is  taken  from  the  box  to-day,  and,  when  free,  walks 
towards  it. 

21st  day. — Grows  well,  still  sleeps  much,  and  is  very 
quiet. 

After  being  out  of  box  a  short  time  it  returns  to  it 


182  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

and  tries  to  climb  in.     Makes  two  such  attempts  and 
almost  succeeded. 

Can  now  follow  a  finger  at  6  feet. 

Licks  its  right  hind-leg,  and  holds  it  in  a  position 
convenient  for  the  purpose. 

Some  incisor  teeth  have  appeared  both  above  and 
below. 

22nd  day. — Distinguishes  a  finger  at  6  feet. 

When  I  scraped  the  fingers  against  the  box  in  which 
it  lies,  hisses  (surprise). 

Licks  herself  on  neck  and  chest,  a  difficult  muscular 
feat. 

Biting  skin  like  mother. 

Now  walks  relatively  well. 

On  two  occasions  to-day  climbs  to  top  of  box  from 
the  outside,  does  not  go  in,  but  puts  paws  on  inside. 

Does  not  now  return  to  box  so  soon  when  allowed 
out.  It  walks  around,  smells  at  spots  on  the  carpet,  but 
wishes  to  get  into  the  box  in  about  two  minutes,  and 
manages  to  scramble  in  with  difficulty. 

It  is  noticed  that  the  paws  spread  greatly  in  walking, 
so  that  it  may  be  said  to  be  plantigrade  at  this  period. 

Between  6  and  7  P.M.,  for  the  last  three  days,  the 
kitten  plays  a  little,  lying  on  its  back  and  using  mouth 
and  paws. 

A  small  dog  is  brought  near  where  it  stands  on  the 
floor.  It  puts  up  its  lack  and  tail,  hisses — even  spits — 
with  the  fur  erected. 

Can  now  follow  with  the  eyes  the  journal  before 
mentioned  at  a  distance  of  8  feet. 

Its  hearing  is  also  plainly  more  acute. 

Several  times  to-day  it  has  stretched  up  in  box,  and 
looked  around  as  far  as  possible.  When  allowed  out  it 
goes  around  investigating  with  nose  and  eyes,  but  still 
soon  wants  to  get  back.  After  failing  once  or  twice, 
manages  to  scramble  in,  but  without  hurting  itself. 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS      183 

Later  the  same  day  succeeds  on  the  first  attempt. 

The  method  of  descent  involves  not  only  considerable 
control  of  muscular  movements,  but  some  knowledge 
acquired  by  experience. 

24th  day. — Mother  away.  Kitten  cries,  as  if  wanting 
to  get  out  of  box.  Is  lifted  out,  and  after  walking 
around  a  good  deal,  climbs  back  in  the  same  manner  as 
before,  but  with  much  less  trouble.  Finding  the 
mother  there  it  begins  to  play  with  her.  Its  attitudes, 
etc.,  much  more  distinctly  cat-like  than  before. 

Takes  notice  of  shadows  in  box  and  elsewhere  at 
night. 

25th  day. — Takes  no  notice  of  milk  placed  in  saucer 
before  it,  though  held  close  to  the  nose,  but  when  put 
on  its  lips  is  removed  with  the  tongue. 

A  string  dangled  before  it  produces  no  effect. 

Is  noticed  to  watch  its  mother's  actions  more  intently, 
as  well  as  what  in  general  may  be  going  on  around  it. 

When  asleep  I  call  fairly  loudly,  at  a  distance  of 
3  feet,  "  Puss !  puss  ! "  but  with  negative  result. 

At  11  P.M.  desires  to  get  out  of  box.  Hesitates  when 
on  the  edge,  and  finally  glides  down  near  the  leg  of  a 
table,  within  a  few  inches  of  the  box. 

On  stroking  its  head,  it  presses  up  against  the  hand 
like  an  old  cat. 

26th  day. — Is  playing  in  box  early  this  forenoon. 
Now  and  then  walks  with  tail  up.  Cannot  always  walk 
without  some  unsteadiness. 

Notices  spots  on  carpet ;  sinks  claws  into  it. 

Seeks  a  corner,  cries,  evacuates  faeces,  which  the 
mother  at  once  removed,  as  when  her  progeny  kept 
closely  to  the  box. 

Later  it  leaves  the  box  again,  and  is  taken  back  by 
the  mother,  which  carried  the  kitten  by  the  loose  skin 
of  the  neck. 

Soon  it  leaves  the  box  again  and  goes  to  a  part  of  the 


184  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

room  where  there  are  some  book- shelves,  the  lower  ones 
of  which  are  not  completely  filled  with  books,  but  hold 
other  things. 

The  mother  follows  it.  The  kitten  is  put  back  into 
its  box. 

First  noticed  to-day  what  seemed  to  be  purely  volun- 
tary movements  of  the  ears. 

Continues  to  notice  shadows,  and  to-night  tries  to  put 
its  paw  on  them. 

Still  takes  no  notice  of  meat. 

Licks  hind  foot,  and,  while  doing  so,  spreads  its  toes 
apart,  as  an  old  cat  may  be  seen  to  do  under  similar 
circumstances. 

27th  day. — On  getting  out  of  box  starts  on  a  little  run 
for  the  book-shelves. 

It  was  taken  from  among  the  objects  on  the  shelf, 
turned  towards  the  box,  and  given  a  few  taps.  It  ran 
on  to  the  box  and  got  into  it. 

The  mother  is  in  the  box  moving  her  tail  to  and  fro. 
The  kitten  plays  with  it. 

I  suddenly  appear  near  the  box  with  a  coat  on — light 
in  colour,  with  pronounced  vertical  stripes — when  the 
kitten  at  once  opens  its  mouth,  and,  on  my  going  nearer, 
hisses. 

Later  is  seen  watching  flies,  at  a  distance  of  6  to  7 
feet,  flying. 

Now  gives  evidence  of  hearing  slight  sounds  at  some 
distance  in  the  room,  and  apparently  notices  the  notes  of 
a  piano  downstairs. 

The  movements  of  the  ears  are  more  pronounced. 

The  kitten  continues  to  show  a  strong  desire  to  get  to 
the  book-shelves,  about  which  the  mother  manifests 
some  anxiety,  which  she  evinces  by  staying  close  to 
her. 

Mother  is  making  her  toilet — the  kitten  bites  at  her 
in  opposition.  The  mother  then  seized  her  by  the  neck, 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS      185 

and  after  holding  her  quiet  for  a  few  seconds,  goes  on 
with  her  operations,  but  puts  one  leg  over  her  as  if  to 
be  on  guard  against  any  further  interference. 

28th  day.  —  Feeding  again  attempted.  A  small 
quantity  of  milk  is  given  in  a  little  saucer,  which  the 
kitten  licks,  but  seems  to  get  some  of  the  milk  into  the 
nose,  which  causes  sneezing. 

Plays  with  a  small  piece  of  coal  found  in  her 
box. 

On  suddenly  throwing  aside  a  curtain  that  covers  the 
book-shelves,  the  kitten  is  found  there,  and  hisses. 

I  place  her  in  a  rocking-chair,  over  18  inches  from  the 
floor,  but  she  manages  to  scramble  down  without  injury 
to  herself. 

About  5  P.M.  the  entrance  to  the  book-shelf  was 
barred  up.  The  kitten  first  tries  every  part  of  the 
barricade,  then  pushes  in  the  curtain,  cries  with  vexa- 
tion, climbs  upon  a  box  near,  leaps  from  this  on  the 
curtain,  holding  on  with  the  claws.  After  trying  again 
and  again  desists,  and  after  a  few  moments  returns  to 
the  attack.  At  last  she  gives  up,  returns  to  her  box, 
settles  down  and  sucks  her  mother,  and  then  soon  after 
falls  asleep.  Her  attempts  to  get  into  this  shelf  and 
accomplish  her  object  were  to  me  a  study  of  unusual 
interest,  especially  as  the  animal  was  only  28  days  old. 

The  eyes  are  now  capable  of  much  quicker  move- 
ments than  before. 

Now  hears  "  Puss ! "  however  lightly  uttered,  also 
hears  dogs  barking  in  the  yard. 

This  has  been  a  day  of  activity  and  notably  great 
advancement. 

29th  day. — Quieter  to-day  (reaction  ?). 

Without  its  mother  last  night  for  the  first  time. 

Takes  a  little  milk  twice  to-day. 

There  is  some  difficulty  in  keeping  the  milk  out  of 
the  nose,  which  is  owing  to  inability  to  hold  the  head 


186  ANIMAL   INTELLIGENCE 

just  right.  When  solid  food,  as  meat,  is  put  in  the 
mouth,  it  is  rejected. 

Shows  a  desire  to  use  claws ;  sticks  them  into  objects. 

In  play  have  seen  an  incipient  run  on  two  or  three 
occasions. 

When  the  mother  has  been  cleaning  the  kitten,  after 
answering  nature's  calls,  there  have  for  some  days  been 
cries,  but  to-day  there  is  active  protest  with  teeth  and 
claws,  which,  however,  the  mother  heeds  but  little. 

When  placed  on  a  window  ledge,  2  feet  from  the 
floor  (and  seeming  more),  the  kitten  looks  down  and 
plainly  would  like  to  get  down,  but  does  not  venture 
to  try  the  descent. 

After  lapping  milk  to-day  it  cleans  itself  (toilet). 

Is  seen  for  the  first  time  to  wash  its  own  face. 

30tk  day. — To-day,  a  pan,  containing  some  fine  sand 
in  the  bottom,  is  set  near  the  kitten's  box  which  is  to 
be  used  as  a  retiring  place  to  encourage  cleanly  habits. 
The  sand  will  be  frequently  renewed. 

The  studies  in  connection  with  this  have  proved  very 
interesting  and  instructive  to  the  writer. 

The  kitten  climbs  out  of  box,  and  goes  to  the  corner 
of  the  room  near  the  box,  and  cries.  It  is  then  lifted 
into  the  pan  and  soon  passes  urine. 

It  then  visits  the  book-shelf  and  tries  to  get  in ;  cries. 
Not  succeeding,  it  returns  towards  its  box,  and  having 
to  pass  the  pan  on  the  way,  it  puts  one  paw  into  the 
sand,  but  withdraws  it  and  goes  on. 

It  soon  enters  its  box  and  sleeps. 

Later,  is  out  of  its  box. 

The  tearing  of  the  paper  wrappers  from  a  journal 
startles  it  considerably. 

In  the  evening  leaves  its  box  and  plays  a  good  deal. 
It  can  now  walk  well,  and  run  in  some  fashion. 

It  carries  tail  in  all  ways  now,  and  moves  it  more 
or  less. 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS      187 

It  makes  many  attempts  to  get  into  the  book-shelf 
and  at  last  succeeds. 

For  its  play,  even  the  leg  of  the  table  suffices.  It 
darts  back  as  if  it  was  afraid  of  it,  etc. 

31st  day. — Is  out  of  its  box;  cries;  is  put  into  pan; 
after  some  delay  urinates. 

Plays  with  carpet,  a  piece  of  coal,  the  edge  of  box, 
etc.,  its  lack  being  arched,  tail  up,  etc. 

Notice  movements  of  tongue,  jaws,  etc.,  when  asleep, 
as  if  sucking  or  lapping  milk. 

This  morning  the  kitten  stretches,  like  an  old  cat,  four 
or  five  times  when  it  gets  out  of  its  box  (first  time  seen). 

A  string,  curled  up  at  end,  is  dangled  before  it  in  the 
box.  The  kitten  starts  back  and  hisses. 

In  the  evening  it  is  found  behind  the  barricade  of 
the  book-shelf  sleeping  on  some  books.  It  is  taken 
out,  but  works  its  way  back  again.  It  finds  getting 
out  difficult,  but  perseveres. 

To-day  plays  with  a  ball  and  a  spool. 

This  evening  laps  milk  without  any  trouble  for  the 
first  time. 

32nd  day. — Kitten  seems  uneasy ;  is  placed  in  the 
sand  pan ;  after  crying  and  pawing  it  passes  urine. 
Then  slips  out  and  stretches  itself. 

Still  some  trouble  with  nose  when  lapping  milk. 

Enters  the  pan  of  its  own  accord.     No  results. 

It  tries  the  book-shelf  barricade,  but  not  succeeding 
gives  up,  and  sits  in  its  box  near  by,  and  grooms  itself  well. 

Later,  it  makes  a  more  determined  attempt  on  the 
barricade,  and  with  success.  It  has  difficulty  in  getting 
out,  but  soon  goes  in  again  and  remains  from  half  to 
three-quarters  of  an  hour. 

Enters  pan ;  cries ;  urinates ;  much  licking  of  the 
paws  after  it  leaves  the  pan. 

On  moving  one  of  my  fingers  before  it,  the  kitten 
boxes  with  it. 


188  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

PHYSICAL. — Its  eyes  are  changing  colour,  being  a  sort 
of  blue-grey.  Paws  no  longer  splayed.  Its  fur  is 
darker  in  colour.  It  is  rather  a  light  tabby.  Fore-legs 
not  quite  straight.  Tail  carried  vertically  a  great  deal. 
To-day  spends  much  time  sleeping  behind  the  barri- 
cade. When  taken  out,  it  goes  back  persistently. 

Still  sucks  the  mother,  using  the  fore-paws  vigor- 
ously in  pressing  on  the  mammary  glands. 

It  may  be  said  to  jump  out  of  the  box  now  rather 
than  scramble  out,  i.e.  lands  on  floor  with  a  sort  of 
leap,  though  it  still  scrambles  in  much  as  before. 

33rd  day. — Found  behind  the  barricade  this  morning 
before  daylight.  When  trying  to  prevent  its  advance 
in  a  certain  direction,  the  kitten  evades  me  by  running 
under  a  rocking-chair,  where  it  is  partly  hidden. 

See  it  trying  to  catch  a  fly  in  the  pan  to-day. 

When  put  in  the  pan  now  it  nearly  always  paws  the 
sand  whether  there  is  anything  further  or  not. 

Mother  and  kitten  play  together  to-day  for  the  first 
time. 

Though  the  book-shelves  were  closed  by  a  curtain 
tacked  on  them,  the  kitten  managed  to  get  in,  though  I 
do  not  know  how. 

Now  goes  towards  persons  sitting  or  walking  in  the 
room,  and  wanders  about  more  or  less. 

Is  startled  by  water  running  from  a  sink  with  down 
suction  to-day,  though  about  30  feet  distant. 

34th  day. — In  a  sort  of  perverse  play  bothers  its  mother 
so  much  that  she  puts  her  forelegs  about  the  kitten  to 
hold  it  quiet.  Then  the  latter  scratches  so  vigorously 
with  hind-legs  that  the  mother  cries  out. 

To-day  the  kitten  is  kept  in  the  pan,  notwithstanding 
restlessness  and  crying,  till  it  passes  fceces  for  the  first 
time  here.  This  followed  by  much  grooming  of  itself, 
as  in  an  old  cat. 

The  kitten  has  now  a  look  of  much  greater  intelligence. 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS      189 


deny.  —  Growing  well.  Weighs  1J  Ibs.  Is  given 
milk,  then  placed  in  pan  and  uses  it. 

To-day  when  called  "  Puss  !  puss  !  "  as  it  lies  behind 
the  barricade,  it  conies  out. 

Now  manifests  pleasure  in  being  stroked. 

Its  vision  is  now  so  keen  it  can  rapidly  follow 
movements  of  the  fingers,  etc. 

It  scrambles  into  the  book-  shelf  by  a  new  way  and  at 
a  much  greater  height. 

Is  seen  to  catch  at  its  own  tail  for  the  first  time. 

Two  Skye  terrier  puppies  are  brought  near  the  kitten. 
It  makes  a  great  fuss,  showing  all  the  signs  of  anger, 
etc. 

Some  cooked  fish  (of  which  cats  are  notoriously  fond) 
was  placed  before  the  kitten.  It  licked  this  but  did  not 
eat  any,  though  there  seemed  to  be  a  certain  amount  of 
surprise  and  excitement. 

36th  day.  —  The  day  is  dull,  and  the  kitten,  lies  in  its 
box  a  great  deal  in  the  forenoon,  though  later  it  rouses 
itself  and  plays  with  its  mother. 

I  try  for  some  reason  to  intercept  the  kitten  when  it 
makes  a  long  run  to  escape. 

To-day,  for  the  first  time,  it  crosses  the  threshold  of  the 
room  door,  but  was  scared  back. 

For  the  first  time,  too,  it  sinks  its  claws  into  an  upright 
object,  as  an  old  cat  often  does. 

Some  raw  meat  is  placed  before  its  nose.  It  sniffs  at 
this,  but  makes  no  attempt  to  eat  it. 

It  begins  to  understand  better  the  meaning  of  the 
call  "Puss!  puss!" 

Its  manner  of  play  now  much  more  active  and  com- 
plicated. 

Is  noticed  stalking  on  two  occasions  to-day  —  once 
towards  the  mother's  moving  tail. 

37th  day.  —  This  morning  early  the  kitten  enters  the 
pan,  of  its  own  accord,  and  functions. 


190  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

When  I  cough  at  6  feet  the  kitten  puts  up  its  back 
(surprise). 

It  is  given  milk  on  the  window  ledge  referred  to 
before,  and,  when  it  has  finished  lapping,  scrambles  down 
between  the  wall  and  a  rocking-chair. 

Later  it  comes  over  to  me  and  climbs  up  my  clothing 
into  my  lap. 

Visits  the  pan  again  of  its  own  accord,  and  functions, 
after  which  it  retires  to  its  box  and  sleeps. 

Climbs  into  a  waste-paper  basket,  and,  after  moving 
about  among  the  papers  a  little  while,  climbs  out 
without  upsetting  the  basket. 

The  kitten  walks  out  of  the  room,  but  on  being 
turned  back  towards  the  door,  and  the  hands  clapped,  it 
runs  in  again. 

Again  uses  pan  of  its  own  accord. 

Walks  out  of  the  room  and  begins  to  climb  the  stairs 
leading  to  a  higher  flat. 

Climbs  into  my  wife's  lap  in  the  evening,  and  from 
thence  gets  upon  a  table  beside  which  she  is  sitting,  and 
plays  with  objects  on  the  table. 

At  the  sound  of  footsteps  in  the  room  inclined  to 
retreat  from  the  table. 

38th  day. — Slept  long  behind  the  barricade  this 
morning.  On  awakening  goes  spontaneously  to  the 
pan. 

To-day  goes  behind  books  on  another  shelf  near  my 
table,  and,  when  removed,  returns. 

Cooked  meat  is  licked,  but  not  chewed  or  swallowed. 

Goes  from  my  daughter's  lap  to  the  table  top  and 
sleeps  there.  On  awakening,  it  looks  down  after 
moving  about  some,  crouches,  but  hesitates  to  go 
further. 

About  9  P.M.,  on  this  day,  when  sitting  on  one  of  my 
legs,  the  other  being  separated  from  this  only  about  the 
length  of  the  kitten,  wishing  to  get  across  to  the  other 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOtTNG  ANIMALS      191 

leg,  it  fears  to  leap,  but  walks  up  higher,  where  there  it 
finds  a  natural  bridge. 

The  kitten  is  put  on  the  window  ledge  where  there 
is  some  milk.  It  soon  wishes  to  get  down,  hesitates, 
cries,  looks  to  mother  apparently  for  aid,  walks  along 
the  whole  ledge,  in  doing  which,  as  the  window  is  open, 
it  must  pass  over  a  surface  only  1J  inches  wide.  At 
last  I  hold  a  journal  a  little  way  from  the  ledge  upon 
which  the  kitten  steps  and  is  lowered  by  me  to  the 
floor. 

Sucks  mother  now  practically  only  at  night,  though 
up  to  the  present  it  has  eaten  no  solid  food. 

39th  day. — When  lapping  milk  the  old  difficulty  is 
noticed  to-day  and  occasionally  still. 

Climbs  on  my  lap,  and  thence  upon  the  table  by 
which  I  sit,  making  use  of  the  table-cloth  as  a  means  of 
ascent. 

Gets  from  an  ordinary  chair  to  the  table,  and  comes 
upon  my  lap  by  a  little  leap — the  distance  being  about 
7  inches — first  crying,  however,  as  if  aware  of  the 
danger  and  difficulty. 

If  at  any  time  it  is  out  of  the  room  a  little  way,  and 
hears  footsteps,  etc.,  runs  back. 

Now  goes  from  table  to  any  chair  that  may  be  near  it, 
and  thence  to  the  floor  by  a  sort  of  scrambling  descent. 

On  dangling  a  string  before  it,  the  kitten  at  first 
hisses,  and  then  in  a  moment  plays  with  it,  catching  it 
with  her  paws  again  and  again. 

Goes  to  pan  spontaneously.  Always  cries  before 
answering  nature's  calls,  and  paws  the  sand  invariably 
afterwards,  and  sometimes  before. 

4:Qth  day. — Weight  1£  Ibs.     Growing  well. 

Tries  to  get  on  a  low  chair  about  a  foot  from  the 
floor,  on  which  there  is  a  stool  that  almost  covers  the 
top.  In  this  it  fails.  The  kitten  then  goes  to  the  book- 
shelf near,  and  tries  to  reach  the  chair.  The  stretch  is 


192  ANIMAL   INTELLIGENCE 

too  long,  and  the  result  is  the  first  and  only  fall  I  have 
ever  seen  her  sustain. 

When  sitting  on  my  knee  its  mother  calls  for  her. 
The  kitten  crouches  as  if  to  hide.  Saw  something  akin 
to  this  lately,  when  she  was  sitting  in  a  big  chair,  and 
the  mother  was  seeking  her. 

Euns  into  the  hall,  thence  to  the  bedroom,  and  when 
scared  out  does  not  at  once  return  to  the  study. 

To-day  jumps  from  the  table  to  the  chair,  16  inches 
below  the  table,  and  about  12  inches  out  from  it. 

Climbs  up  the  cane  back  of  a  rocking-chair,  and 
returns  by  the  same  method  easily. 

Hearing  seems  to  have  reached  its  maximum  acute- 
ness,  as  a  very  slight  sound  arouses  her,  even  when 
drowsing. 

41s£  day. — On  entering  the  room  this  morning  the 
kitten  walks  towards  me.  As  I  stand,  it  mounts  on 
hind-legs  and  puts  its  fore-paws  against  my  leg. 

Is  on  the  table  when  I  am  writing,  and  manifests 
much  interest  in  the  movement  of  my  pen. 

After  using  the  pan  to-day,  covers  up  the  actual  spot 
wet  for  the  first  time,  though  always  paws  somewhere. 

When  I  enter  the  room  in  the  afternoon,  the  kitten 
gets  down  from  a  rocking-chair  and  comes  to  meet  me. 

When  sitting  on  rny  knee,  3  feet  from  the  table, 
it  manifests  a  desire  to  get  on  the  table  by  looking 
towards  it  and  crying. 

42nd  day. — Has  been  out  in  a  dark  corner  of  the 
hall  leading  to  the  study,  and  in  a  bedroom  also  not 
far  off. 

Climbs  up  my  leg,  and  thence  to  table,  three  times 
in  succession,  though  put  down  each  time. 

Sits  on  the  table  watching  the  movements  of  my 
pen,  or  playing  with  various  objects  it  finds  about. 

Again  visits  the  waste-paper  basket,  and  plays  with 
some  crumpled  papers  in  the  bottom. 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS      193 

Smells  keenly  at  my  fingers  that  had  handled  a 
recently  killed  mouse. 

When  the  mouse  is  presented  to  it,  the  kitten  smells 
it,  licks  it,  and  then  bites  it.  When  I  attempt  to  draw 
the  mouse  away,  the  kitten  holds  on  with  its  teeth  and 
claws,  and  growls  slightly. 

Jumps  down  from  a  height  of  1J  feet  to-day  without 
any  fall. 

43rd  day.  —  Kitten  sleeps  much  to-day.  When 
awake  wishes  to  be  either  in  my  wife's  lap  or  on  the 
table. 

Offer  it  some  meat.  Smells  and  licks  it,  but  makes 
no  attempt  to  eat  it.  Licks  its  lips  long  after  the  meat 
is  put  to  its  mouth,  as  if  to  get  rid  of  the  last  trace  of 
the  meat.  When  it  is  brought  near  it  again,  makes 
off. 

Is  very  playful  this  evening.  Interferes  so  much 
with  the  pen  as  one  writes,  it  is  impossible  to  do  so 
while  it  is  near. 

44th  day. — Plays  vigorously,  but  not  long  at  one 
time.  Sleeps  a  great  deal. 

In  the  evening  finds  a  new  hiding-place,  and  fails  to 
make  any  sign  when  called. 

Is  put  in  pan,  but  will  not  remain  in.  Micturates 
in  a  corner,  and  is  given  a  mild  punishment,  which  is 
well  borne. 

In  the  evening  visits  the  pan,  and  after  using  it 
takes  great  pains  to  paw  up  the  sand  into  a  heap. 

Catches  flies.     Plays  with  one  of  them  after  it  is  dead. 

Euns  into  the  most  distant  room  on  the  flat  on 
which  the  study  is,  i.e.  it  goes  further  from  home,  so  to 
speak,  than  ever  before. 

45th  day. — Eaces  about  much  to-day,  under  chairs, 
out  of  the  room,  etc. 

Of  its  own  accord  visits  the  pan,  and  defsecates  twice 
taking  pains  to  cover  up  what  is  passed. 

N 


194  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

4:6th  day. — Eats  for  the  first  time  to-day  small  piece 
of  cooked  meat  and  potato ;  licks  the  plate  on  which  it 
is,  and  seems  to  like  the  food  very  much. 

Acts  with  a  dead  mouse  as  before. 

Plays  with  its  mother  so  violently  that  the  latter 
seizes  it  and  holds  it  down. 

4^th  day. — A  piece  of  catnip  that  affects  mature  cats 
so  peculiarly,  produces  no  such  effects  on  the  kitten, 
which  seems  rather  to  dislike  the  smell. 

48th  day. — Full  of  an  apparently  reckless  activity. 
Climbs  up  and  down  chairs,  etc.,  with  great  vim  and 
rapidity,   but   never   falls.      When   tired,   sleeps,   and 
leeps  long. 

Meat  is  offered  to-day.  Smells  at  it,  but  does  not 
eat  till  a  small  piece  is  placed  in  its  mouth,  when  it 
eats  with  apparent  relish  all  placed  before  it. 

When  on  the  table  a  spool  falls  to  the  floor.  In  an 
instant  the  kitten  leaps  from  the  table  to  my  wife's  lap, 
and  thence  to  the  floor.  In  its  play  runs  behind  the 
book-shelf,  and  rushes  out  at  its  mother  from  behind 
the  curtain  again  and  again. 

49^  day. — Catches  flies  on  the  window ;  takes  no 
notice  of  dead  flies. 

When  engaged  in  this  sport  it  upsets  a  vessel  con- 
taining a  little  milk,  and  is  so  startled  by  this  that  it 
rushes  down  at  once  with  a  peculiar  expression  on  its 
face. 

50th  day. — When  we  are  at  dinner  to-day  the  kitten 
runs  into  the  dining-room  on  the  flat  below  its  home. 

Since  this  long  wandering  from  home  it  is  difficult  to 
keep  it  in  the  study,  as  it  wishes  to  be  here,  there,  and 
everywhere,  maintaining  ceaseless  activity  when  not 
asleep. 

Jumps  from  the  table  to  the  floor  by  one  dear  leap. 
51st  day. — The  kitten  climbs  from  my  chair  up  my 
back,  and  rests  on  my  shoulder. 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS      195 

As  its  mother  walks  upstairs,  the  kitten  crouches 
back  from  the  top,  as  if  to  spring  on  her  by  surprise. 

52nd  day. — Again  climbs  up  my  back,  and  remains 
there  while  I  walk  downstairs. 

On  coming  home  late  I  go  into  the  dining-room,  into 
which  the  kitten  also  shortly  walks. 

53rd  day. — I  can  notice  a  change  in  the  shape  of  the 
kitten's  head.  It  is  more  elongated,  etc. 

Its  eyes  are  also  changing  colour — getting  lighter. 

54th  day. — Is  very  playful  all  day. 

At  night,  late,  when  I  go  into  the  dining-room,  the 
kitten  follows,  and,  when  there,  climbs  half  way  up  a 
wire-netting  door  separating  the  kitchen  from  the 
dining-room. 

On  stroking  the  kitten  to-day  it  is  noticed  to  purr  for 
the  first  time. 

55th  day. — On  stroking  the  kitten  it  purrs.  Soon 
after,  it  sits  on  the  table  and  purrs  of  its  own  accord, 
still  louder. 

56th  day. — Manifests  an  unusual  desire  to  sit  in  my 
lap,  and  on  the  cushion  of  the  chair  between  my 
legs. 

57th  day. — The  kitten  eyes  very  closely,  from  the  top 
of  a  rocking-chair,  a  canary  bird  in  a  cage  at  a  height 
of  2  or  3  feet,  and  at  about  4  feet  distant. 

It  also  crouches  when  it  sees  flies  moving  on  the  floor, 
etc. 

A  small  dachshund  dog  is  brought  into  the  study 
to-day.  The  kitten  puts  up  its  back,  growls,  etc.  The 
little  dog  and  the  kitten  are  then  taken  on  my  wife's 
lap.  The  kitten  holds  off,  but  looks  interested,  and 
finally  approaches  and  smells  at  the  dog. 

Spontaneous  purring  occurs  this  evening. 

The  kitten  "  washes  its  face,"  first  with  one  paw,  then 
the  other,  in  an  elaborate  way  not  seen  before. 

5Sth  day. — It  is  beginning  to  be  difficult  to  keep  the 


196  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

kitten  out  of  the  dining-room,  and  to-day  it  tries  hard 
to  get  in  by  the  wire-gauze  door. 

59th  day. — The  kitten  seems  to  be  uneasy  when  quite 
alone. 

Came  upstairs  to-day  to  use  the  pan. 

There  is  a  fire  in  the  grate  in  the  study  for  the  first 
time  this  autumn.  The  kitten  touches  the  poker,  which 
is  hot.  It  hisses,  etc.,  but  soon  after  it  touches  it  again 
and  again,  in  its  usual  persistent  way. 

QQth  day. — After  tea  I  lie  down  on  a  sofa  in  a  room 
adjoining  the  dining-room,  whereupon  the  kitten  climbs 
upon  the  sofa,  and  walks  from  my  legs  up  to  my  chest, 
where  it  remains  purring. 

Now  generally  comes  when  called  "  Puss  !  puss ! " 

Present  physical  condition : 

Colour  not  very  greatly  changed.  Is  still  a  light 
tabby. 

The  shape  of  the  head  is  now  much  more  like  its 
mother's. 

The  eyes  seem  to  be  getting  lighter. 

Weight,  2J  Ibs. 

Height,  7  inches. 

During  the  past  two  weeks  it  shows  much  wayward- 
ness. When  an  attempt  is  made  to  thwart  the  kitten 
in  any  way  it  bites,  scratches,  etc.,  in  a  half-earnest, 
half -playful  way. 

63rd  day. — Slips,  by  some  mishap,  in  part  into  a 
water  pitcher,  which  is  followed  by  hissing  and  a  great 
fuss  generally. 

Goth  day. — For  the  first  time  is  allowed  outside  on 
the  front  steps.  No  longer  remains  as  much  in  the  study. 

67th  day. — Kitten  to-day  micturates  in  the  corner  of 
the  study,  notwithstanding  that  it  had  been  solicited  to 
use  the  pan.  Is  punished  with  a  small  strap. 

7Qth  day. — For  the  past  two  days  the  kitten  is  much 
inclined  to  repeat  the  offence  of  the  67th  day. 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS      197 

Very  active  and  very  mischievous. 
Seems   to   take  a  delight    in   interfering   with    my 
reading,  writing,  or  whatever  I  may  be  engaged  in. 

Late  in  the  evening  I  call,  "  Puss !  puss ! "  but  no 
puss  comes.  After  looking  here  and  there  it  is  dis- 
covered beneath  the  table,  beside  the  waste  -  paper 
basket,  trying  to  hide  from  me.  When  I  go  to  one 
side  of  the  basket  the  kitten  betakes  itself  to  the 
other. 

77th  day. — Is  plainly  growing  fast,  especially  in 
height. 

The  kitten,  up  to  the  present,  has  been  out  of  doors  in 
all  about  half  a  dozen  times.  On  one  occasion  cried  to 
get  out. 

The  kitten  still  cries  when  it  feels  any  want,  or  when 
it  cannot  accomplish  its  object,  or  is  disappointed,  e.g. 
it  will  cry  if  it  goes  to  the  window  and  cannot  find  flies 
to  catch. 

A  Skye  terrier  is  brought  into  the  study,  also  the 
dachshund  that  was  in  before.  Seems  more  inclined  to 
attack  the  Skye  than  the  other  dog. 

Is  more  especially  fond  of  sitting  in  my  wife's  lap, 
and  begins  to  show  attachment  to  her  above  all  the 
other  members  of  the  family. 

Now  likes  to  lie  before  the  fire.     This   especially 
shown  yesterday,  a  wet  and  cold  day. 
Now  shows  fondness  for  fish. 

Now  often,  when  put  in  the  pan,  will  scrape  up  the 

sand,  yet  keep  looking  about  awaiting  a  chance  to  escape. 

The  kitten  now  takes  its  sleep  mostly  at  night.     It 

has  a  much  more  intelligent,  older,  more  matured  look 

than  a  couple  of  weeks  ago. 

81st  day. — When  calling  for  it  at  night  in  the  dining- 
room  it  again  plays  at  hide-and-seek. 

84:th  day. — Physical  growth  evident.  The  kitten's 
eyes  are  now  the  colour  of  its  mother's. 


198  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

Shows  increased  fondness  for  sitting  in  my  wife's  lap, 
near  the  fire,  etc. 

Less  trouble  for  some  days  in  getting  the  kitten  to 
use  the  pan. 

The  dachshund  puppy  is  brought  into  the  study. 
The  kitten  manifests  less  excitement;  evidently  re- 
members him. 

The  kitten  can  now,  and  for  at  least  three  weeks 
past,  watch  a  long  series  of  events  intently. 

87th  day. — In  carriage  of  body,  tail,  etc.,  very  like  a 
mature  cat. 

88th  day. — The  kitten  is  offered  some  bread  and 
milk,  which  it  sniffs  at,  but  evidently  does  not  want. 
After  thus  smelling  at  the  food  it  scratches  around  it,  as 
if  to  cover  it  up. 

91st  day. — Now,  when  allowed  out  the  front  door,  the 
kitten  runs  across  the  road  to  a  vacant  lot  opposite 
without  special  fear.  When  let  in,  follows  one  up  close, 
as  I  notice  a  mature  cat  often  does. 

The  way  in  which  the  kitten  makes  a  choice  as  to  a 
difficult  leap  to-day,  after  much  evident  observation, 
apparently  careful  weighing  of  difficulties,  etc.,  before 
the  decision  and  choice  between  several  possible  ways 
are  finally  made,  is  a  fruitful  study. 

The  same  judgment  is  shown  in  its  behaviour 
towards  a  parrot  kept  in  the  same  room.  The  parrot 
has  always  proved  more  than  equal  to  any  of  the 
kitten's  advances,  and  this  the  latter  seems  fully  to 
realise. 

98th  day. — Growth  in  height  noticeable,  though  I  see 
the  kitten  daily  so  much. 

The  canary's  cage  is  set  in  a  new  position  near  the 
parrot.  The  kitten  makes  a  spring  on  the  cage  and 
falls  back.  It  is  punished  for  this,  and  takes  it  well. 

Later,  it  moves  up  towards  the  parrot,  but  the  latter 
is  ready  to  nip  its  paw,  etc.,  so  the  kitten  with- 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS      199 

draws,  showing  some  dread  of  this  quiet  but  watchful 
creature. 

The  kitten  still  shows  the  mischievous  tendency.  It 
likes  to  knock  down  spools  from  the  table,  and  especially 
to  take  pins  out  of  the  cushion. 

Will  sometimes  cry  for  my  wife  to  sit  down  so  that 
it  may  lie  in  her  lap. 

Wist  day. — Was  outside  this  morning  when  my  dogs 
were  being  taken  out  for  exercise.  Is  taken  by  surprise, 
and  rapidly  climbs  a  tree  just  at  hand,  to  the  height 
of  30  feet.  Does  not  seem  to  know  how  to  descend,  or 
fears  to  do  so,  A  long  pole  is  hoisted  up  to  it,  and, 
after  being  pushed  a  little  with  the  pole,  it  takes 
the  hint  and  gets  on  the  pole,  and  so  is  lowered 
down. 

W5th  day. — The  most  marked  feature  in  the  kitten's 
conduct  for  a  week  past  has  been  its  sociability,  or  its 
pleasure  in  being  near  those  human  beings  with  which 
it  has  been  most  associated.  Seems  to  look  now  to  my 
wife  as  its  best  friend. 

When  lying  on  the  floor  near  a  rocking-chair  in 
motion,  the  kitten  puts  its  paw  near,  but  not  under  the 
rocker. 

The  canary's  cage  is  again  near  the  parrot's,  and  the 
kitten  seems  to  find  it  difficult  to  refrain  from  leaping 
at  the  canary. 

Is  now  very  fond  of  getting  out  of  doors  and  roaming 
about. 

Last  night,  as  soon  as  the  lights  were  put  out,  the 
kitten  cries,  as  if  wanting  to  get  out  of  the  study, 
wishing  to  go  downstairs ;  does  so,  and  at  once  goes  to 
the  front  door. 

Was  taken  up  again  struggling  vigorously.  When 
placed  in  the  pan  it  at  once  makes  use  of  it. 

The  kitten  seems  now  to  show  a  great  increase  in 
her  liking  for  us  all. 


200  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

To-day,  by  a  series  of  climbings,  gets  to  my  shoulders, 
then  puts  up  its  paws  on  my  head,  and  purrs  in  a  most 
decided  way,  suggestive  of  pleasure  and  affection. 

W*Jth  day. — Is  trying  to  get  into  a  flower-pot  with 
earth  in  it,  apparently  with  the  object  of  using  it  as 
the  pan;  and  about  two  weeks  ago  was  observed  to 
scratch  at  sand  in  a  vessel  set  near  the  fire  to  dry. 

110th  day. — Kitten  sits  in  bedroom  window  looking 
out,  and  evidently  enjoying  the  sunshine  and  view. 

l~L2th  day. — Was  again  found  up  in  a  tree  very  near 
the  house,  though  the  cause  is  unknown. 

The  dachshund  was  in  the  study  to-day.  The  kitten 
evidently  remembered  the  dog,  and  they  at  length  put 
nose  to  nose. 

When  the  kitten  looks  down  on  the  dogs  from  the 
upper  veranda,  it  shows  some  fear,  begotten  of  its  tree 
experience,  I  think,  rather  than  from  instinct  alone. 

Later,  the  kitten  gets  sufficiently  familiar  with  the 
dachshund  to  be  inclined  to  play  with  its  tail  and  take 
other  liberties. 

After  being  fed  of  late  the  kitten  quiets  down,  seems 
pleased,  perhaps  grateful,  purrs,  etc. 

llSth  day. — In  order  to  test  its  behaviour,  a  living 
mouse,  tied  by  the  tail  or  hind  leg,  is  confined  in  a 
pasteboard  box.  The  kitten  smells  at  the  box  eagerly, 
and  follows  up  the  box  as  it  is  carried  away.  When  the 
mouse  is  released  the  kitten  seizes  it  with  a  growl.  It 
does  not  at  once  kill  the  creature,  but  plays  with  it. 
When  I  go  near  the  mouse  it  is  seized  with  accompanying 
growling.  After  thus  playing  with  the  mouse  for  from 
fifteen  to  twenty  minutes,  the  kitten  eats  it  completely. 
119th  day. — The  dachshund  is  brought  into  the  study 
to-day.  Is  less  afraid,  and  inclines  to  be  more  aggressive 
with  the  kitten.  + 

The  kitten  is  inclined  to  play  with  the  dog,  but  very 
little  seems  to  bring  forth  a  hiss. 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS      201 

After  the  kitten  has  been  out  in  the  cold  (latter  part 
of  November),  it  expressed  great  pleasure  on  its  return 
to  comfort,  as  manifested  by  purring,  rubbing  itself 
against  one's  legs,  etc. 

When  any  member  of  the  family  goes  downstairs  late 
in  the  evening,  the  kitten  will  also  go  (food). 

127^  day. — The  dachshund  brought  into  the  study 
to-day.  Both  lie  on  my  wife's  lap.  By  degrees  the 
kitten  takes  more  and  more  liberties,  such  as  biting  its 
ears  and  neck  playfully. 

Both  go  down  to  the  dining-room  when  dinner  is 
ready.  A  plate  with  meat  and  potatoes  on  it  is  set 
down  before  them.  The  kitten  snatches  a  piece  of  meat, 
but  does  not  venture  to  take  any  more  food  from  the 
plate. 

Later,  a  Skye  terrier  is  brought  in,  but  the  kitten  does 
not  make  free  with  it. 

Now  follows  my  wife  about  much  like  a  dog,  going 
after  her  even  out  of  doors. 

When  standing  near  the  table  the  kitten  jumps  from 
it  upon  her  shoulder. 

129th  day. — Flies  are  now  very  rare,  and  whenever 
the  kitten  sees  one  it  makes  for  it. 

Sits  in  the  window  watching  snowflakes  fall,  and  tries 
to  catch  them  through  the  window-panes. 

To-day,  a  member  of  the  family  the  kitten  seldom  sees, 
goes  into  the  cellar  to  get  some  meat  for  the  cat,  and  as 
he  walks  down  the  steps  he  calls,  "  Puss !  puss ! " 
The  kitten  seems  puzzled,  and  runs  about  looking  up  at 
my  wife  in  the  kitchen  and  crying,  and  this  is  repeated, 
and  every  time  with  the  same  result.  My  wife  goes  to 
the  cellar  door,  induces  the  kitten  to  go  down  a  step  or 
two,  when  the  kitten,  observing  the  one  who  is  calling 
it  near  the  meat,  runs  down. 

I35th  day. — The  kitten  is  out  early  in  the  evening  in 
front  of  the  house,  and  is  after  a  while  sought  for  but 


202  ANIMAL   INTELLIGENCE 

cannot  be  found,  having,  in  all  probability,  been  picked 
up  by  some  one  passing. 

Remarks  on  the  Diary. 

Since  I  propose  to  make  a  comparison  between  the 
development  of  the  dog  and  the  cat  in  another  paper, 
by  which  more  instructive  results  may,  it  is  hoped,  be 
reached,  the  remarks  that  follow  are  to  be  considered 
rather  in  the  light  of  suggestions  as  to  some  of  the 
ways  in  which  the  diary  may  be  utilised  than  as  a 
commentary  at  all  complete. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  records  that  the  evidence  for 
taste  and  smell  before  the  3rd  day  is  not  very  convinc- 
ing; that  the  evidence  for  a  temperature  sense,  the 
feeling  of  pain,  ordinary  reflex  action  from  tactile  sensi- 
bility, etc.,  is  more  conclusive. 

By  the  6th  day  a  great  advance  is  recorded  in  regard 
to  all  these  qualities. 

Fatigue  is  still  readily  experienced. 

Sometimes,  as  e.g.  on  the  9th  day,  an  apparently 
decided  advance  is  shown  in  a  single  day. 

The  experience  of  fear  or  surprise  seems  to  be  ex- 
perienced first  about  the  9th  day  through  the  sense  of 
hearing,  if  we  except  that  uneasiness  and  crying  that 
results  almost  from  the  first  when  the  animal  is  removed 
from  its  usual  surroundings. 

The  spontaneous  movements  of  the  ears,  and  more 
doubtful  movement  of  the  tail,  on  the  10th  day,  are 
worthy  of  note. 

Attention  is  called  to  the  advances  in  vision  as  noted 
on  the  llth,  13th,  14th,  18th,  22nd,  25th,  26th,  etc., 
days. 

On  the  8th  day  the  eyes  began  to  open,  but  hearing 
was  then  established. 

On  the  llth  day  winking  is  caused  reflexly  by  the 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS      203 

movement  of  an  object  before  the  eyes  at  the  distance 
of  a  \  inch. 

On  the  13th  day  the  pupils  respond  to  light. 

On  the  14th  day  a  small  object  is  followed  by  the 
eyes. 

The  16th  day  was  memorable,  as  on  that  day  was 
noticed  the  first  licking  of  the  paw,  the  first  act  of 
scratching,  and  the  first  play. 

On  the  18th  day  the  nose,  uncoloured  at  birth,  began 
to  pigment. 

The  21st  day  furnishes  evidences  of  recognition  by 
the  kitten  of  its  box  as  its  home,  for,  after  being  out,  it 
returns  to  it  and  climbs  in. 

Attention  is  directed  to  the  various  stages  of 
development  of  muscular  co-ordination,  as  illustrated 
by  the  kitten's  toilet-making,  play,  getting  in  and  out 
of  its  box,  and  from  one  object  to  another  in  the  room, 
and  which  can  be  followed  from  the  somewhat  full 
records  of  facts  bearing  on  this  subject.  The  records  of 
certain  days  are  clear  on  this  point,  e.g.  16th,  18th, 
21st,  23rd,  28th,  29th,  30th,  32nd,  33rd,  37th,  51st. 

The  behaviour  of  the  kitten  towards  the  same  dog  at 
different  times,  and  as  compared  with  the  second  dog, 
seems  to  me  to  indicate  an  interesting  struggle  between 
instinct  and  other  qualities,  and  shows  how  the  result, 
in  any  one  case,  depends  on  past  experience,  the  stage 
of  development,  and  much  more  that  each  reader  will 
put  into  the  case,  according  to  his  own  views  of 
physiology  and  psychology."* 

*  Mr  T.  Mann  Jones'  remarks  on  this  subject  will  be  read  with 
interest:  "You  deal  with  the  notion  of  hereditary  (psychical) 
memory  and  aversions  more  gently  than  I  should.  As  early  as  a  boy 
I  had  come  to  the  conclusion,  from  experiments,  that  if  I  allowed 
hereditary  memory  of  dogs  to  kittens,  I  must  also  allow  they  had 
hereditary  memory  of  a  chemical  laboratory ;  and  later,  my  experiments 
on  fowls  convinced  me  if  I  admitted  memory  (psychic)  of  the  hawk's 
cry,  I  must  also  admit  similar  memory  of  the  report  of  a  gun  and  the 


UNIVERSITY 


204  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

Similar  remarks  may  be  made  as  regards  the 
behaviour  of  the  kitten  towards  the  sand  pan.  This 
little  history  illustrates,  it  seems  to  me,  some  of  the 
fundamental  laws  of  all  training  and  education,  whether 
applied  to  the  human  being  or  the  lower  animals.* 

The  case  is  simpler  as  regards  the  latter,  but  not 
wholly  different,  and  observations  of  the  kind  made  in 
this  case  impress  me  more  than  ever  with  the  import- 
ance of  attempting  to  give  the  fullest  possible  record  of 
every  feature  in  the  psychic  development  and  the 
physical  development  of  those  animals  by  which  we  are 
surrounded. 

The  history  of  the  kitten's  whole  bearing  towards 
the  book-shelves  has  been  to  me  a  most  instructive 
one.  I  have  never  witnessed  such  perseverance  in 
the  accomplishment  of  an  object  in  any  young  animal 

sound  of  watchman's  rattle  and  '  penny  squeakers.'     It  was  a  reductio 
ad  absurdum. 

"In  1872  and  1873  I  reared  two  small  broods  of  chicks  by  the  aid  of 
a  large  tom-cat,  Pedro,  who  acted  as  foster -parent,  and  in  whose  fur 
they  nestled  when  cold,  and  slept  at  night.  When  half- grown,  or 
less,  they  would  run  towards  any  cat,  and  were  attracted  by  the  voice 
even  if  they  did  not  see  the  animal,  and  would  have  been  killed  but 
for  the  watchful  aid  of  Pedro  ;  yet,  they  avoided  all  my  hens,  and  took 
refuge  hastily  with  Pedro  if  a  '  clucking '  or  broody  hen  called  them, 
or  a  cock  crowed  near  them  ! " 

*  Mr  T.  Mann  Jones  writes  me  as  follows  :  "  I  was  greatly  pleased 
to  see  you  had  noted  the  rise  of  the  habit  of  cleanliness  in  the 
kitten.  I  have  given  considerable  attention  to  this  in  children,  dogs, 
and  cats.  I  have  been  often  surprised  that  no  naturalist  whose  works 
I  have  read  had  given  the  subject  the  attention  it  probably  deserves. 
From  personal  observation,  and  such  information  as  I  could  get  from 
mothers  and  nurses,  I  have  come  to  the  provisional  conclusion  that 
early  self-control  as  to  the  sphincters,  whether  in  man  or  animal,  is  a 
pretty  fair  indication  that  the  adult  will  possess  more  than  average 
self-control.  What  a  difference  in  setting  up  'cleanly'  habits 
corresponds  with  in  later  life  of  self-indulgence  and  ready  acceptance 
of  every  suggestion  to  mere  instinctive  action,  i.e.  we  have  a  weak- 
nerved  animal  more  or  less,  though  often  a  very  obstinate  one. 

"  May  I  suggest  a  probably  fresh  field  of  observation  in  animal 
psychology  connected  with  this  ?  The  efforts  of  the  long-haired  dogs 
to  avoid  uncleanliness  when  suffering  from  diarrhoea.  Punch  avails 
himself  of  a  wire  fence,  using  the  second  wire  as  a  skirt  holder,  by 
carefully  adjusting  his  long  fur  on  it,  and  the  lower  wire  as  a  seat ! 
.  .  .  The  plan  answered.  Great  gratification  followed." 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS      205 

— not  excepting  the  child.  It  seemed  that  the  greater 
the  obstacles,  the  greater  the  efforts  the  kitten  put  forth 
to  overcome  them — behaviour  that  we  usually  consider 
especially  human,  and  ever  an  evidence  of  unusual 
strength  of  character. 

That  this  kitten  was  not  an  ordinary  one  in  many 
respects  I  am  quite  prepared  to  believe,  but  still  the 
animal  was  a  cat,  and  a  cat  only,  and  that  such 
"  character  "  should  have  been  shown  was  a  surprise  to 
one  who  has  been  a  long  and  close  observer  of  animals. 

I  have  seen  something  akin  to  this  in  that  remark- 
able bird  the  parrot,  but  not  in  a  parrot  so  young  as 
this  kitten. 

One  of  the  remarkable  features  in  the  whole  group 
of  the  felidce  was  illustrated  in  this  kitten,  viz.  the 
slowness  with  which  they  learn  to  eat  and  drink,  and 
the  length  of  time  before  difficulties  are  fully  over- 
come. 

A  comparison  of  the  kitten's  behaviour  towards  the 
parrot  and  the  canary  furnishes  food  for  reflection,  and 
in  this,  as  in  all  such  cases,  all  narrow  explanations 
prove  inadequate;  and  while  the  laws  of  association 
etc.  may  explain  much,  they  do  not  seem  to  me  to 
explain  all  in  the  case  of  the  lower  animals,  any  more 
than  in  the  case  of  the  child  or  the  man. 

Conclusions. 

While  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  cats  are  born  deaf 
and  blind,  the  question  of  smell  and  taste  is  more 
difficult  to  settle.  Up  to  the  third  day,  and  even  then, 
there  is  no  clear  evidence  of  smell  and  taste,  though,  on 
the  whole,  it  would  appear  that  the  facts  in  favour  of 
the  existence  of  smell  are  more  certain  than  in  the  case 
of  taste. 

There  is  evidence,  on  the  3rd  day,  of  reflex  action, 


206  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

brought  about  through  stimulation  of  the  skin ;  of  the 
existence  of  the  ability  to  distinguish  hot  and  cold 
objects,  and  of  capacity  to  suffer  pain;  though,  as 
regards  all  these,  the  latent  period  is  relatively  very 
long.  At  birth,  and  up  to  the  3rd  day,  though  it  is 
likely  that  all  these  powers  exist  in  the  animal,  the 
evidence  is  feeble. 

Motor  power  is  restricted  to  such  an  extent  that  the 
animal  can  crawl  only  and  but  slowly. 

Tactile  sensibility,  the  sense  of  pain,  and  the  tem- 
perature sense  reach  their  highest  degree  of  develop- 
ment earlier  than  hearing  and  vision. 

Hearing  is  established  before  seeing,  and  reaches  its 
greatest  perfection  sooner  than  vision. 

In  the  progress  of  all  the  senses  to  full  development, 
the  course,  while  marked  by  definite  steps,  is  often  so 
rapid  that  distinct  advances  may  sometimes  be  noted 
in  a  single  day. 

Not  only  in  the  development  of  the  senses,  but  in  all 
other  phases  of  progress  has  this  been  clearly  evident 
in  the  case  of  the  kitten  under  observation. 

Apart  from  the  senses,  etc.,  there  seems  to  be  a 
definite  order  in  which  all  the  features  of  feline  nature 
appear,  e.g.  purring,  crouching,  stalking,  etc. 

Certain  physical  changes  are  correlated  in  time  with 
certain  psychic  developments,  the  significance  of  which 
is  in  some  cases  clear,  in  others  obscure. 


III. — THE  MONGKEL  DOG. 
The  Mongrel  and  the  Pure- Bred  Dog  Compared. 

IN  my  first  paper  on  the  psychic  development,  etc. 
of  the  Dog,  the  observations  and  conclusions  applied 
to  pure -bred  animals  only,  though  two  widely  different 
breeds  were  compared. 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS      20? 

It  seemed  to  me  desirable  for  many  reasons  that  the 
mongrel  should  also  be  studied,  accordingly  this  paper 
will  be  devoted  to  that  purpose,  and  to  a  comparison 
between  the  mongrel  and  the  pure-bred  dog,  in  a 
manner  to  harmonise  with  my  general  plan  of  treat- 
ment of  the  subject  of  psychogenesis  in  the  lower 
animals. 

Diary, 

The  puppies  under  observation  belonged  to  a  litter 
of  nine,  of  which  seven  were  preserved.  The  dam  was  a 
strong,  healthy  black  animal,  and  the  sire  was  unknown. 
The  dam  and  puppies  were  kept  under  similar  con- 
ditions to  those  described  in  my  first  paper  on  the  Dog, 
i.e.  in  a  pen  on  the  floor  of  a  separate  compartment  of 
the  kennel,  on  which  at  first  there  was  abundance  of 
good  straw,  and  at  a  later  date  sawdust.  The  puppies 
were  born  in  December,  and  artificial  heat  was 
maintained  in  the  kennel  constantly,  so  that  the 
animals  were  always  comfortable.  The  dam  was  well 
fed,  and  otherwise  properly  cared  for  throughout,  and 
from  beginning  to  end  was  perfectly  well,  and  able  to 
nurse  her  puppies  in  an  entirely  satisfactory  manner. 

1st  day. — Vigour  of  puppies  shown  by  a  strong  voice, 
somewhat  between  a  growl  and  a  bark. 

They  respond  to  a  prick  or  punch  and  to  a  hot  body, 
but  not  so  quickly.  Oil  of  wormseed  placed  near  the 
nose  causes  a  sniffing;  pure  carbolic  acid  causes  the 
face  to  be  distorted ;  blistering  fluid  leads  to  protrusion 
of  the  tongue ;  and  tincture  of  iodine  to  sniffing. 

When  soup  is  similarly  placed  before  the  nose  there 
is  TIO  evidence  of  smell. 

Solutions  of  salt  and  of  sugar,  also  cow's  milk,  are 
presented  at  different  times.  Certain  conclusions 
cannot  be  drawn.  The  brush  on  which  the  solution 
of  sugar  is  presented,  is  sucked  vigorously,  however. 

The  puppies  will  not  crawl  off  a  table,  etc, 


208  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

2nd  day. — The  irritating  substances  used  on  the  first 
day  produce  more  marked  effects. 

No  positive  evidence  is  forthcoming  as  regards  milk, 
but  sugar  seems  to  be  agreeable. 

When  salt  is  put  in  the  mouth  it  is  rejected  doubt- 
fully, but  aloes  most  decidedly.  Both  are  used  in 
solution. 

5th  day. — Irritants  affect  the  puppies  through  the 
nose  at  a  greater  distance. 

It  remains  doubtful  whether  meat  is  smelt  or  not, 
but  milk  and  a  solution  of  aloes  seem  to  be,  for  the 
puppies  cease  to  make  their  characteristic  sounds  when 
these  substances  are  placed  before  the  nose. 

They  do  not  yet  seem  to  show  any  shortening  of  the 
latent  period  of  reflex  action  on  pinching. 

9th  day. — None  of  them  show  any  signs  of  opening 
of  the  eyes. 

10^  day. — When  blistering  fluid  in  a  bottle  is 
brought  near,  active  movements  result;  the  head  is 
lifted  up,  the  tongue  put  out,  and  sneezing,  etc.,  follows. 

Now,  when  a  solution  6*E  salt  of  the  same  strength  as 
that  used  before  is  presented,  it  is  rejected,  and  there  is 
frothing  at  the  mouth,  etc.  Much  disgust  is  also  shown 
towards  aloes ;  with  milk  the  result  is  not  pronounced, 
but  with  sugar  there  is  undoubted  enjoyment. 

Eyes  begin  to  open. 

19th  day. — On  clapping  my  hands,  and  uttering 
"  Hist ! "  vigorously,  the  ears  are  moved,  indicating  the 
ability  to  hear. 

20th  day. — Evidence  of  hearing,  as  above,  at  the 
distance  of  4  feet. 

A  piece  of  meat,  put  within  a  J-inch  of  the  nose 
of  one  of  the  puppies,  causes  it  to  move  towards  the 
object  and  lick  the  lips.  The  same  follows  when 
cheese  is  used.  When  the  same  experiments  are  tried 
with  sleeping  puppies  they  also  lick  the  lips. 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS      209 

Stamping  with  moderate  force  on  the  floor  on  the 
kennel  (concussion),  within  2  feet  of  the  puppies, 
rouses  them  far  more  effectively  than  a  sound  of 
considerable  loudness. 

One  of  the  puppies  is  brought  into  my  study.  It 
moves  about,  crawling  rather  than  walking,  with  its 
tail  carried  or  held,  much  as  in  a  turtle,  the  hind  legs 
being  much  spread  out. 

No  great  uneasiness  manifested. 

The  puppy  is  a  picture  of  healthy  vegetative  existence. 

The  incisor  teeth  are  appearing. 

As  an  evidence  that  the  puppy  is  influenced  by  the 
change  in  the  environment,  it  may  be  mentioned  that 
the  cheese  and  the  meat  do  not- produce  now  the  effects 
they  did  when  the  puppy  was  in  its  own  pen. 

Under  favourable  conditions  a  mere  trace  of  salt 
causes  decided  signs  of  disgust. 

When  blistering  fluid  is  held  within  2  to  3  inches 
of  the  nose  the  puppy  acts  as  if  something  unpleasant 
were  in  its  mouth. 

The  puppy  winks  occasionally,  apparently  spon- 
taneously, but  inking  cannot  be  induced  reflexly 
until  the  moving  finger  is  approached  so  close  to  the 
eye  as  to  almost  touch  the  eyelashes. 

When  the  finger  and  thumb  are  moved,  as  in 
snapping  the  fingers,  but  without  causing  any  noise, 
the  puppy  under  observation  turns  its  eyes  in  the 
direction  of  the  object,  so  that  I  have  no  doubt  that 
a  small  object,  as  a  finger,  is  distinguished  at  3  to  4 
inches,  and  a  larger  one  at  about  2  feet.  When  the 
fingers  are  snapped  in  the  ordinary  way,  the  head,  as 
well  as  the  eyes,  are  turned  towards  the  exciting  object, 
showing  that  vision  and  hearing  are  both  stimulated 
effectively  and  together. 

Motor  activity  is  still  poorly  developed. 

The  coat,  straight  before,  begins  to  show  waviness. 
o 


210  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

24th  day. — To-day  a  puppy  follows  a  fish-bone  by 
smell,  and  attempts  to  bite  at  it. 

25th  day. — The  appearance  of  the  eyes  show  an 
advance  over  a  few  days  ago. 

When  the  dam  is  brought  within  6  to  8  feet  of  the 
puppies  they  seem  to  become  aware  of  her  presence  by 
smell  first  of  all,  but  when  within  a  few  feet  of  them 
they  follow  her  with  the  eyes. 

There  is  a  decided  improvement  in  locomotion. 

The  puppies  now  have  all  the  upper  incisors,  the 
canines  above  and  below,  and  two  molars  above  and 
two  below. 

Hearing  is  now  very  acute.  A  very  feeble  "  Hist ! " 
when  within  a  couple  of  feet,  causes  movement  of  the 
ears,  turning  of  the  head,  and  an  expression  of  the 
face  that  indicates  clearly  that  the  puppy  hears. 

A  "  Hist ! "  of  moderate  intensity  is  heard  readily  at 
5  feet. 

There  is  a  tendency  now,  when  any  object  is  placed 
before  the  puppies,  to  growl  or  bark  at  it  in  a  meaning- 
less way. 

3lst  day. — To-day  a  slight  sound  caused  a  starting. 
The  puppy  (henceforth  the  only  one)  seems  to  have 
reached  that  period  when  hearing,  as  a  mere  sensation, 
is  perfect,  but  the  interpretation  of  sounds  very 
imperfect,  hence  he  is  startled  by  many  sounds  that 
later  produce  no  such  effect.  When  a  bone  is  placed 
within  4  inches  of  him  he  sniffs  at  it,  and  gets  up  to 
secure  it. 

He  makes  the  first  attempts  at  gnawing  a  bone,  using 
his  paws  to  steady  himself,  and  once  lifts  a  paw  as  if  to 
place  it  on  the  bone,  but  does  not  actually  do  so. 

The  puppy  now  evidently  sees  small  objects  at  some 
distance  quite  well. 

He  now  stands  quite  erect  on  his  legs,  and  to-day 
climbs  over  the  rungs  of  a  small  rocking-chair. 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS      211 

When  in  the  house  to-day  he  manifests  shyness  or 
appreciation  of  the  strangeness  of  his  surroundings. 

When  his  head  is  stroked  he  acts  somewhat  as  a  cat. 

Has  begun  a  sort  of  playing  with  his  dam. 

The  social  tendency  is  clearly  evidenced. 

38th  day. — Has  grown  much.  There  is  a  great  change 
in  his  attitude,  manner  of  walking,  etc.  The  puppy  can 
now  run  fairly  well. 

He  has  wonderful  control  of  his  tail,  moving  it  when 
he  approaches  vigorously,  as  an  old  dog. 

For  a  week  past  his  social  tendencies  towards  human 
beings  have  been  very  marked. 

He  is  now  provided  with,  practically,  his  full  comple- 
ment of  teeth 

His  eyes  and  general  facial  expression  have  also  greatly 
changed. 

He  is  still  readily  startled  by  sounds. 

He  as  yet  reposes  a  good  deal,  which  perhaps  accounts 
in  no  small  degree  for  his  perfect  health  and  excellent 
state  of  nutrition. 

He  now  sees  small  objects  at  a  distance  of  8  to  10 
feet  at  least. 

He  is  ready  to  eat  almost  anything  given  him. 

He  can  now  lite  accurately  at  any  part  of  his 
body. 

39th  day. — His  weaning  is  begun  regularly  to-day. 

4:2nd  day. — The  following  experiments  were  tried  to- 
day :  When  a  finger  was  put  in  his  mouth  he  sucked 
it,  but  he  would  take  no  notice  of  a  stick  presented  in 
the  same  way.  Bread  he  tackled  at  once,  using  his  back 
teeth  to  crush  it.  Meat  he  devoured  eagerly.  He  had 
received  no  nourishment  of  any  kind  for  one  hour 
previous  to  these  experiments. 

4t5th  day. — Puppy  is  brought  into  my  study.  Shows 
little  or  no  shyness  after  a  few  moments.  He  is  inclined 
to  move  about  and  use  his  nose  in  an  investigating  way. 


212  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

He  can  now  run  fast  and  well,  his  power  over  his 
hind  legs  being  good. 

He  hears  perfectly  even  faint  sounds. 

On  being  held  before  a  piano,  when  it  is  played  upon, 
he  manifests  no  special  effect. 

46 th  day. — The  puppy  gets  up  to  a  water-pan  over  a 
foot  high,  and,  resting  his  front  paws  on  it,  laps  water, 
the  whole  proceeding  reminding  one  of  a  mature  dog. 
This  was  first  done,  however,  three  or  four  days  ago. 

A  small  Skye  terrier,  and  afterwards  a  collie,  are 
allowed  to  enter  the  puppy's  compartment,  but  he  does 
not  seem  inclined  to  notice  them  much. 

Lies  with  his  head  on  the  sill  of  the  door  of  his  com- 
partment. 

47th  day. — After  I  play  a  little  while  with  the  puppy, 
and  then  retire,  he  barks  impatiently  to  get  out. 

49th  day. — The  puppy  is  playing  in  the  yard. 
Scratches  at  the  snow  like  an  old  dog.  After  defecation 
he  draws  himself  along  in  the  snow. 

He  pulls  at  the  withered  branch  of  a  vine  growing 
against  a  fence. 

He  ascends  a  snow  bank  in  the  yard,  wagging  his  tail. 

He  seems  very  much  at  home  with  the  older  dogs, 
and  adapts  well  to  his  surroundings. 

62nd  day. — The  last  remark  applies  with  much  greater 
force  now. 

He  is  very  free  in  all  his  movements.  Carries  his  tail 
up,  and  wags  it  vigorously. 

Considerable  change  is  observable  in  the  shape  of 
his  muzzle  within  a  few  days. 

On  being  given  a  lone  he  does  not  commence  on  it  at 
once,  but  carries  it  to  his  bed  instead  of  gnawing  it  on 
the  sawdust  that  covers  the  floor  of  his  pen. 

63rd  day. — To-day  the  puppy  is  trying  hard  to  get 
out  of  his  compartment,  pushing  his  head  through  be- 
tween the  iron- wire  door  and  the  sill,  and  using  his  paws 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS      213 

to  enlarge  the  opening — in  fact,  he  behaves  in  this  very 
much  like  a  mature  dog. 

56th  day. — When  he  is  out  of  his  compartment  (the 
door  open)  and  he  is  told  to  go  in,  and  one  stamps  with 
the  foot,  he  retreats  to  his  box,  but  soon  wants  to  come 
out  again. 

63rd  day. — He  now  mingles  with  all  the  dogs  of  the 
kennel,  large  and  small,  seems  to  enjoy  the  life,  and 
manages  to  adapt  admirably  to  his  entire  environment. 

69^  day. — Prior  to  defsecation  moves  about,  smells, 
turns  round  and  round,  etc.,  just  like  an  old  dog. 

Shows  sexual  feeling,  if  one  may  judge  by  his  actions 
towards  a  mature  bitch. 

87th  day. — Since  the  last  record,  his  progress  in 
adaptation  and  in  general  development  has  been  steady. 
As  the  chief  stages  in  development  had  been  now  over- 
taken, he  was  removed  to  my  laboratory  for  experiment 
on  the  brain. 

Remarks  on  the  Diary. 

Observations  on  the  temperature  sense,  tactile  sensi- 
bility, and  the  sense  of  pain  were  not  made  as  early  as 
desirable  in  the  pure-bred  puppies,  but  this  omission 
was  made  good  in  the  present  case,  as  the  diary  shows, 
and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  these  senses  all  exist 
from  the  moment  of  birth.  The  evidence  that  true 
smell,  as  distinguished  from  the  mere  sense  of  irritation 
of  the  nose  by  pungent  vapours,  is  less  conclusive, 
while  that  for  taste  is  more  doubtful  still. 

The  increasing  development  of  tactile  sensibility,  and 
especially  the  readiness  of  the  nervous  system  to  respond 
to  stimuli  acting  on  the  nasal  mucous  membrane,  is  well 
illustrated  by  the  observations  recorded  at  different 
times  in  the  early  life  period  of  the  puppies. 

Both  smell  and  taste  are  very  feebly  developed  before 
the  eyes  are  open,  but  about  the  10th  day  there  was 


214  ANIMAL   INTELLIGENCE 

clear  evidence  of  both  enjoyment  and  disgust  through 
taste,  at  all  events. 

The  general  advancement  of  the  animal  is  well  shown 
in  its  behaviour  towards  blistering  fluid  on  the  10th  day. 

By  the  20th  day  smell  had  become  a  powerful  moving 
force  in  the  animal,  as  it  always  will  continue  to  be. 

The  manner  in  which  a  sleeping  dog,  young  or  old, 
is  affected  by  the  presence  of  food  with  a  pronounced 
smell,  is  very  impressive  to  one  who  witnesses  it. 

At  so  early  a  period  as  the  24th  day  this  puppy's 
sense  of  smell  was  so  well  developed,  it  will  be  noticed, 
that  he  followed  a  bone  by  its  aid  quite  well.  At  this 
period  he  used  his  eyes,  as  well  as  his  nose,  to  guide  him. 

At  this  date  also  hearing  was  good — in  fact,  by  the 
25th  day  the  dog  had  reached  a  period  of  fair  develop- 
ment of  all  his  senses,  and  with  considerable  motor 
power,  which,  of  course,  also  implies  a  corresponding 
development  of  the  muscular  sense.  Hearing  seems  to 
be  the  most  rapidly  developed  of  all  the  senses,  i.e.  the 
period  from  its  first  beginnings  to  its  greatest  acuteness 
is  relatively  short. 

The  pleasure  of  the  puppy  on  having  its  head  stroked, 
on  the  31st  day,  is  noteworthy. 

The  Moiigrd  Dog  and  the  Pure-Bred  Dog  Compared. 

In  my  first  paper  on  the  dog,  certain  differences  were 
noted  between  two  varieties  of  pure-bred  dogs — the  one 
large  and  the  other  small,  viz.  between  the  St  Bernard 
and  the  Bedlington  terrier.  I  now  propose  to  compare 
the  pure-bred  and  the  mongrel,  chiefly  on  the  basis  of 
my  records  in  the  earlier  and  in  this  paper. 

The  mongrel  showed  more  vigour  at  birth,  and  shortly 
after,  as  evidenced  to  me  at  a  distance,  by  the  voice. 
He  also  seemed  to  be  somewhat  less  influenced  by  cold, 
though  more  persistent,  or  at  least  more  successful,  in 
getting  all  the  heat  possible  from  the  dam. 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS      215 

-Although  this  is  not  specially  noted  in  the  diary,  the 
mongrel  did  not  show  fatigue  quite  as  soon  as  the  pure- 
bred dog. 

The  eyes  began  to  open  earlier  than  in  either  the  St 
Bernard  or  the  Bedlington.  I  could  not  get  certain 
evidence  of  smell  in  the  case  of  the  St  Bernard 
before  the  12th  or  13th  day,  but  in  the  mongrel  there 
is  some  evidence  of  smell  on  the  10th  day,  at  latest. 
The  Bedlington  smelt  meat  on  the  10th  day.  I  am 
not  prepared  to  state  that  dogs  do  not  smell  at  all  before 
the  10th  day,  or  even  the  5th  day,  for  which  there  was 
some  evidence,  or  even  on  the  first  day,  but  I  am  of 
opinion  that  before,  at  least  a  few  days  after  birth, 
smell  is  so  feebly  developed,  if  at  all,  that  one  could  not 
demonstrate  its  existence  to  an  unbiassed  observer.  I 
refer  now,  not  to  the  effect  of  irritating  volatile  liquids, 
but  to  the  ability  to  smell  food. 

The  mongrel  showed  signs  of  disgust  with  aloes,  and 
a  positive  liking  for  sugar,  as  early  as  the  2nd  day.  I 
could  not  establish  this  for  the  pure-bred  dogs  for  some 
days  later. 

It  is  noteworthy  that,  on  the  3rd  day,  the  mongrel 
sucks  one's  finger  more  readily  than  a  piece  of  meat. 

Though  dogs  are  carnivorous  animals  before  a  certain 
period  in  their  development,  they  are  no  more  excited 
by  meat  than  any  object  whatever,  showing,  in  the 
clearest  way,  that  there  is  an  order  in  psychic  as  in 
physical  development. 

Owing  to  absence  from  home  when  the  mongrels 
were  passing  from  the  llth  to  18th  day,  I  am  unable  to 
make  any  accurate  comparison  in  this  case  as  to  the 
beginnings  of  vision  and  hearing. 

In  both  the  mongrel  and  the  pure-bred  dogs,  the 
winking  reflex  is  very  slowly  developed,  and  long 
remains  feeble,  i.e.  is  excited  with  difficulty. 

Certain   considerations  must  be  borne   in   mind   in 


216  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

attempting  to  compare  the  mongrel  puppy  and  the 
St  Bernards.  The  latter,  I  consider  an  unusually  active 
litter,  while  the  mongrel,  for  a  considerable  period, 
seemed  to  me  more  than  usually  vegetative.  Moreover, 
while  there  were  always  at  least  four  St  Bernards 
together,  this  mongrel  was  the  only  one  of  this  litter 
after  about  the  20th  day. 

One  of  the  features  of  development  greatly  impressed 
on  my  mind  by  these  comparisons,  not  to  mention 
many  other  similar  ones,  was  the  influence  of  one  on 
another  in  all  the  lines  of  development.  This  was 
shown  both  negatively  and  positively  in  the  case  of 
the  mongrel.  After  he  began  to  mingle  with  the  older 
dogs  his  progress  was  marvellous.  He  seemed  in  a 
few  days  to  overtake  himself,  so  to  speak,  and  his 
advancement  was  literally  by  leaps  and  bounds.  It  is 
very  difficult  to  give  an  adequate  idea  of  this  feature 
of  the  mongrel's  history  in  a  diary,  but  I  wish  to 
note  it  specially,  because  it  seems  to  me  to  show  that, 
while  education,  in  the  wider  signification  of  that  word, 
may  in  a  sense  account  for  development,  it  is  equally 
true  that  the  real  nature  of  any  animal  will,  in  the 
main,  assert  itself  sooner  or  later,  however  unfavourable 
the  early  environment.  In  other  words,  heredity  is, 
was,  and  ever  will  be,  stronger  than  environment. 

One  may  safely  say  that  in  all  kinds  of  dogs  the 
perception  of  light  and  shadows  precedes  the  seeing 
of  objects,  and  that  the  latter  is  comparatively  slowly 
developed. 

The  mongrel  seems  to  have  been  very  slow  in  develop- 
ing the  play  instinct,  which  I  attribute  largely  to  his 
being  the  sole  puppy  from  an  early  period,  and  therefore 
seeing  no  other  dog  but  his  dam. 

In  both  the  mongrel  and  the  pure-bred  puppies 
hearing  progresses  rapidly  to  perfection  of  sensation. 
Within  about  ten  days  the  maximum  of  acuteness  is 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS      217 

reached,  and  the  puppies  are  then  very  readily  startled 
by  noises,  i.e.  they  are  reflexly  greatly  affected  through 
the  ear,  much  more  so  than  through  the  eye.  This 
fact  has  been  very  strongly  impressed  on  my  own 
mind  again  and  again. 

As  regards  voluntary  movements,  there  were  differ- 
ences to  be  noted.  The  mongrel  seemed  the  sooner 
to  gain  control  over  the  hind  limbs.  The  same  may 
be  said  of  tail  movements.  Though  one  could  not 
trace  so  general  a  development  in  the  mongrel  as  in 
the  St  Bernards  by  a  certain  period,  the  former  had 
the  greater  power  over  his  tail,  both  as  regards  variety 
and  vigour  of  movement,  especially  the  latter. 

There  was  a  comparatively  sudden  development  in 
this  mongrel  which  I  can  scarcely  think  is  common, 
but,  in  regard  to  this  point,  I  must  speak  cautiously 
till  further  exact  observations  are  made,  as  I  do  not 
wish  to  make  statements  of  mere  general  impressions, 
with  no  definite  basis  of  observation. 

The  movement  of  the  ears  especially,  though  others 
also  fall  into  this  class,  following  on  noises,  are  purely 
reflex,  and  constitute  one  of  the  most  delicate  and 
early  evidences  of  hearing,  but,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
pure-bred  puppies,  concussions  are  earlier  and  more 
readily  effective  than  sounds. 

While  both  the  pure-bred  dogs  and  the  mongrel 
recognise  a  change  in  surroundings,  and  are  affected 
by  it,  herein  lies  one  of  the  great  differences  between 
them  alike  in  puppyhood  and  in  after  life. 

One  may  compare  the  man  "well  born,"  and  sur- 
rounded by  conditions  that  tend  to  form  the  gentleman 
in  the  completest  sense  of  the  term,  with  the  pure-bred 
dog,  just  as  the  mongrel  represents  the  peasant,  whose 
ancestors  and  whose  surroundings  alike  are  against  the 
highest  attainments. 

The    mongrel    lacks  all   that   refinement,   modesty, 


218  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

perhaps  I  may  say,  at  all  events  that  delicate  apprecia- 
tion of  his  own  place  and  that  of  his  fellow  dogs 
and  human  beings,  which  constitute  such  conspicuous 
features  in  the  psychic  whole  of  the  pure-bred  dogs. 
The  latter  show  towards  each  other,  in  a  kennel  with 
many  together,  when  their  owner  encourages  and  gives 
a  chance  for  their  exercise,  kindness,  justice,  and  many 
qualities  utterly  foreign  to  the  nature  of  the  majority 
of  mongrels.  I  do  not  now  use  the  term  mongrel  in 
the  sense  of  a  cross  between  two  pure-bred  dogs,  but 
in  the  more  popular  acceptation  of  a  dog  bred  from 
parents  that  were  mongrels,  and  perhaps  the  remoter 
ancestors  quite  unknown. 

It  is  interesting  to  enquire  whether  these  features  of 
the  psychic  organisation  are  shown  in  the  young  puppy, 
and  if  so,  when. 

Almost  from  the  first  the  mongrel  puppy  shows  an 
ability  to  scramble  for  himself  in  "  this  rough  world  " 
not  manifested  by  the  pure-bred  dog.  His  very  voice 
on  the  first  day  of  his  existence  may,  and  in  this 
case  did,  suggest  this,  but  in  nothing  was  it  shown 
so  much  as  in  the  successful  manner  in  which  he 
held  his  own  among  the  dogs  of  the  kennel,  large  and 
small.  This  was  all  shown  before  the  puppy  was  two 
months  old.  His  confidence  in  himself,  his  power  to 
adapt  to  unfavourable  surroundings,  was  as  advanced 
at  this  age  as  the  St  Bernards  at  four  months.  He 
reminded  me  of  a  forward  boy,  lacking  in  all  true 
modesty  and  due  appreciation  of  what  was  due  to  his 
seniors.  Yet  this  mongrel,  by  virtue  of  this  very 
psychic  condition,  succeeds  in  his  purposes,  if  one 
may  so  express  it. 

In  the  litter  of  St  Bernards,  the  most  prominent  and 
precocious  one  could  not  compare  with  this  mongrel. 
In  the  lower  animals,  development  is  so  rapid  that  new 
features  in  the  psychic  character  at  time  seem  to  reach 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOtJNG  ANIMALS      219 

a  comparatively  complete  development  rather  suddenly, 
even  when  the  animal  is  watched  daily.  This  was 
especially  observable  in  the  mongrel  puppy  after  a 
certain  date,  and  was,  I  think,  all  the  more  so  because 
his  development  for  a  time  seemed  rather  slow,  which 
I  attribute  in  part  to  his  being  the  sole  puppy  for  most 
of  his  life. 

And  here  I  would  draw  special  attention  to  facts  of 
this  character.  The  puppy's  weaning  was  not  begun 
till  the  39th  day,  as  his  dam  was  well  able  to  supply 
him  with  milk,  and  his  nutrition  was  excellent,  but 
when  this  process,  generally  requiring  a  good  deal 
of  care,  and  often  attended  by  much  derangement  of 
health,  was  begun,  there  seemed  to  be  no  need  of 
gradation,  etc.  The  puppy  was  ready  at  once  in  every 
sense  to  eat  all  kinds  of  food  fit  for  a  dog. 

When  he  was  allowed  out  in  the  yard,  all  voluntary 
movements  seemed  to  undergo  a  rapid  development, 
which  was  not  largely  due,  I  think,  to  special  exercise 
or  practice,  but  to  the  sudden  development  of  elements 
of  the  nerve  centres  that  had  been  functionally  latent. 

As  before  stated,  this  case  of  rapid  development  in 
different  directions  has  impressed  me  very  forcibly, 
and  seems  to  be  in  harmony  with  a  law  of  nature  of 
pretty  wide  application. 

I  do  not  think  this  puppy's  intelligence  was  equal  to 
that  of  the  St  Bernards  at  three  months,  though  super- 
ficial observation  might  have  led  one  to  conclude  the 
reverse.  Forward  people  often  pass  with  the  undiscern- 
ing  for  having  an  ability  they  do  not  possess,  because 
of  their  confident,  showy  bearing,  and  the  same  remark 
would  apply  to  this  mongrel  puppy.  The  animal  is 
now  more  than  four  months  old,  and  I  have  seen 
nothing  in  him  to  lead  me  to  alter  this  opinion,  though 
much  to  confirm  what  I  have  endeavoured  to  make 
clear,  as  having  impressed  me  as  true  of  the  psychic 


220  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

nature  of  mongrels,  as  compared  with  pure-bred 
dogs. 

The  characteristic  physical  features  of  the  adult 
certainly  appear  in  mongrels  sooner  than  in  all  the 
larger  breeds  of  dogs;  in  other  words,  they  mature 
sooner  than  these  breeds,  both  physically  and  psychically, 
though  not  in  all  cases  more  rapidly  than  the  smaller 
breeds  of  terriers.  While  all  pure-bred  dogs  must 
have  a  definite  rate  of  development,  according  to  the 
breed,  it  must  be  plain  that  mongrels  will  vary  much 
more  individually  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
ancestors  which  have  contributed  to  their  highly  com- 
posite origin  in  many  instances.  In  the  very  nature  of 
the  case,  the  pure-bred  dog  is  an  inbred  animal,  while 
the  mongrel  is  generally  the  very  reverse.  He,  in  fact, 
approaches  far  more  closely  to  the  wild  Canidce  in  this 
respect. 

From  this  it  would  be  expected  that  the  physical 
changes  would  be  of  a  kind  that  would  appeal  to  the 
eye  much  less — would  be,  in  fact,  less  readily  referred 
to  any  type  or  pattern ;  and  in  no  small  degree  is  this 
true  of  his  psychic  characteristics,  though  these  things 
are  much  more  readily  observed  than  made  clear  by 
any  records.* 

*  I  append  Mr  T.  Mann  Jones'  remarks,  which  grew  out  of  a  dis- 
cussion of  the  question  of  latent  or  undeveloped  power  in  both  human 
beings  and  animals,  though  they  will  suggest  much  beyond  that, 
while  they  constitute  one  of  the  most  interesting  animal  histories 
with  which  the  author  is  acquainted:  "This  latent  power  is 
apparently  called  forth  in  some  dogs  to  a  great  extent  by  slight 
stimulation.  My  grandfather  selected  pups  of  different  breeds,  among 
others  Newfoundlands,  mastiffs,  and  bloodhounds,  as  he  distrusted 
the  ordinary  view  of  'instinct'  as  the  cause  why  certain  breeds 
would  attend  to  sheep,  or  were  sheep-dogs,  and  he  found  in  each  race 
individuals  who  made  as  intelligent  sheep-dogs  as  those  who  '  were  to 
the  manner  born.'  When  I  had  my  opportunity  I  made  observations, 
and  I  sought  information  from  farmers  and  shepherds.  They  say  : 
'  Any  dog  of  any  breed  which  is  powerful  enough  bodily,  makes  a 
good  sheep-dog  if  he  will  try  to  be  one.'  'Special  instinct'  appears 
here  to  be  an  unnecessary  cause.  To  exemplify  by  an  individual.  In 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS      221 


IV.— THE  DOG  AND  THE  CAT  COMPARED. 

ALTHOUGH,  in  popular  estimation,  the  dog  and  the  cat 
are  considered  as  opposites  in  almost  every  respect,  in 
reality  they  have  much  more  in  common  than  any  two 
of  those  animals  commonly  kept  by  man,  as  should  be 
expected  from  their  place  in  nature. 

A  comparison  will,  however,  prove  profitable,  it  is 
believed,  and  this  will  be  based  chiefly  on  the  diaries  of 
the  papers  on  "  The  Dog  "  and  "  The  Cat "  respectively. 

Both  the  dog  and  the  cat,  it  is  scarcely  necessary  to 

Appendix  D.  of  Herbert  Spencer's  '  Justice,'  there  is  some  account  of 
Judy  and  her  pup.  Punch  is  the  monkey  who  was  five  years  old  when 
I  wrote  some  letters  to  H.  S.,  which  he  inserted  in  the  'Justice.' 
He  commented  on  Punch's  actions,  calling  him  '  The  Christian  Dog.' 
The  pup  was  suckled  almost  in  the  dark,  and*  the  mother  removed 
to  some  seven  miles  off  as  soon  as  he  could  lap  milk,  to  prevent  the 
rise  of  imitative  habits. 

"  I  could  not  note  that  his  head  differed  notably  from  Jack's  (the 
sire)  at  two  years  of  age,  nor  from  the  mother's,  so  far  as  I  recollected, 
but  'strain'  of  the  environment  told  on  him.  Somehow  he  dis- 
covered that  one  of  the  family  could  not  hear,  and  took  her  under  his 
charge,  and  for  eight  years  he  has  never  let  horse,  vehicle,  or  tramp 
approach  her  without  warning,  and  if  she  misunderstands  his  indica- 
tion as  to  direction,  he  either  stops  her  altogether,  or,  if  there  is  danger, 
hustles  her,  and  in  some  urgent  cases,  by  no  means  gently,  out  of  the 
way,  But  the  unaccustomed  environment  told  in  another  way.  In 
consequence  of  accidents  I  have  had  to  walk  with  a  crutch.  I  came  to 
a  slippery  place  one  day,  and  slightly  slipped.  The  dog  shrank  as  if 
struck  ;  he  had  been  running  finely  over  such  places  freely  before,  but 
directly  I  came  near  another  place  of  the  kind  the  dog  assumed  the 
'  danger  step,'  or  '  cautious  step,'  looked  up  in  my  face,  and  walked 
with  this  step  which  dogs  naturally  use  when  approaching  an  un- 
known and  possibly  dangerous  object.  I  was  much  puzzled  one  day 
by  his  use  of  this  gait,  and  his  '  edging  me '  out  of  the  direct  line  I 
was  taking,  as  there  was  no  apparent  reason  for  it,  On  standing  and 
looking  back,  he  at  once  pointed,  and  on  examining  the  grass  I  found 
that  a  brood  of  very  young  geese  (without  the  parent)  was  hidden  in 
the  long  grass,  and  if  he  had  not  turned  me  I  must  have  stepped  upon 
them.  The  dog's  sire  was'  a  pure  otter  dog,  mother  a  mixed  breed, 
with  much  of  the  Spaniel  in  her.  It  is  doubtful  if  there  is  any 
pointer  blood,  yet  the  dog  is  always  pointing  or  indicating  by  other 
gesture — not  birds,  however,  but  things  we  should  not  otherwise 
observe.  A  slip  among  the  rocks  of  those  he  is  attached  to,  if  very 
definite,  calls  forth  a  positive  shriek,  followed  by  his  hastening  with- 
out regard  to  falls  and  tumbles  to  the  one  who  has  slipped." 


222  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

point  out,  are  born  blind  and  deaf,  but  the  eyes  of  the 
cat  open  sooner  than  those  of  the  dog,  and  hearing  is 
also  acquired  somewhat  earlier,  but  in  both  the  pro- 
cesses of  learning  to  see  and  to  hear  are  gradual  ones. 

The  pupillary  reflex  is  established  sooner  in  the  cat. 

So  early  as  the  9th  day  the  kitten  studied  and 
previously  reported  on  turned  its  ears  towards  the 
direction  of  a  sound. 

There  is  this  difference,  too,  in  the  movement  of  the 
ears :  the  kitten,  when  reacting  to  a  sound,  turns  the 
ears  or  ear  reflexly  to  the  side  rather,  while  the  dog 
tends  to  draw  them  back. 

I  have  observed  nothing  in  the  young  dog  that 
corresponds  to  the  quivering  movements  of  the  ears  in 
the  kitten,  seen  as  early  as  the  9th  day,  and  which 
possibly  are  imperfectly  executed  voluntary  move- 
ments, like  the  trembling  of  the  hand  in  old  people. 

There  is  nothing  in  the  dog  that  corresponds  exactly 
to  the  hiss,  or  when  feebler,  the  opening  of  the  mouth 
in  the  kitten  when  surprised.  So  far  as  I  know,  this  is 
sui  generis  among  our  domestic  mammals,  though  there 
are  analogies  perhaps  in  birds,  as  in  the  hissing  of 
geese  or  ducks,  and  the  snapping  of  the  beak  in  pigeons, 
even  when  very  young,  to  which  abundant  reference 
has  been  made  in  my  corresponding  paper  on  birds. 

So  early  as  the  3rd  day  the  young  cat  gives  evidence 
of  the  possession  of  genuine  smell,  as  shown  in  its 
behaviour  towards  a  dog  placed  near  it.  At  the  same 
time,  the  sense  of  the  smell  is  very  feeble.  Upon  the 
whole,  it  would  seem  that  taste  and  smell  are  both 
present  rather  sooner  in  the  cat  than  in  the  dog,  and 
in  both  the  beginning  is  feeble,  but  they  go  on  to 
fairly  rapid  development.  However,  I  have  not 
changed  my  opinion,  as  expressed  in  my  first  paper  on 
the  dog,  that  the  dog,  and  I  will  now  add  the  cat,  find 
the  nipple  of  the  mother  by  touch  rather  than  by  smell, 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS      223 

and  that  they  are  drawn  towards  the  belly  of  the 
mother  by  the  warmth  of  the  part. 

In  both  the  dog  and  the  cat  there  is  a  long  latent 
period  in  the  case  of  reflex  movements  from  a  pinch, 
etc.,  as  compared  with  such  an  animal  as  the  rabbit, 
though  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  tactile  sensibility, 
the  capability  of  feeling  pain,  and  the  temperature 
sense,  as  well  as  feeble  motor  power,  hardly  worthy  the 
designation  (voluntary),  exist  in  the  dog  and  the  cat  at 
birth. 

I  am  not  prepared  either  to  affirm  or  deny  that  taste 
and  smell  are  present  at  birth,  but  if  they  do  exist,  I 
am  quite  sure  they  are  of  the  feeblest,  of  very  little  use 
to  the  animal,  and  play  but  a  very  subordinate  part  in 
its  life  during  the  blind  period. 

The  kitten  is  at  first,  if  not  always,  more  sensitive  to 
a  touch,  has  finer  tactile  sensibility  about  the  mouth 
than  the  puppy. 

There  are  the  same  individual  differences  as  to  the 
exact  date  of  the  opening  of  the  eyes,  the  eruption  of 
the  teeth,  etc.,  in  the  kitten  as  in  the  puppy. 

The  dog  and  the  cat  resemble  each  other  in  the 
slowness  with  which  they  acquire  power  over  the  hind 
limbs. 

Neither  the  puppy  nor  the  kitten  have  any  appreciable 
voluntary  control  over  the  tail  during  the  blind  period, 
but  the  dog  finally  uses  the  tail  much  more  than  the  cat 
in  the  expression  of  his  emotions.  What  the  dog  does 
with  his  tail  the  cat  often  expresses  by  purring,  which, 
as  I  have  shown  in  the  paper  on  the  cat,  is  developed 
somewhat  late — much  later  than  the  friendly  wagging 
of  the  tail  in  the  dog ;  and  as  will  be  seen  by  a  com- 
parison of  the  notes  (diaries)  on  the  dog  and  on  the  cat, 
while  there  are  definite  stages  in  tail  carriage  for  each, 
these  are  different  altogether  for  the  two  animals,  and 
herein  we  notice  a  far  greater  difference  than  in  loco- 


224  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

motor  activity.  The  tail  movements  and  carriage  are 
definitely  related  to  the  character  of  the  animals,  and 
to  those  that  watch  them  closely  express  distinct  and 
varying  phases  of  emotion,  etc. 

The  antipathy  of  the  cat  to  the  dog,  while  related  to 
a  psychic  state,  based  on  self-preservation  from  intruders, 
is  peculiarly  marked  towards  the  dog,  though  whether 
more  so  than  towards  any  other  similar  animal,  or, 
towards,  say  a  large  part  of  the  animals  that  might  be 
found  in  any  menagerie,  is  one  that  I  have  not  investi- 
gated. I  have  been  very  much  impressed  by  the  fact, 
that  at  an  early  age  the  kitten,  when  suddenly  disturbed 
in  any  way,  reacts  much  as  if  a  dog  had  come  upon  it, 
though  in  a  less  marked  manner. 

Nevertheless,  the  behaviour  of  a  kitten,  even  a  few 
days  after  its  birth,  towards  even  the  srnell  of  a  dog  on 
the  hands,  is  very  suggestive  of  an  instinctive  fear  or 
dislike  of  the  dog.  At  the  same  time,  I  have  seen  a 
kitten  act  much  the  same  when  an  irritant  was  placed 
near  its  nose,  or,  after  it  could  hear,  when  it  was 
startled  by  a  noise.  This  subject  is  worthy  of  further 
study. 

Equally  striking  in  the  kitten,  as  in  the  puppy,  is 
the  rapidity  with  which  the  creature  tires  under  any 
sort  of  stimulus,  especially  within  the  first  twenty  days 
of  life.  After  a  few  trials,  sometimes  after  the  very 
first  one,  the  smell  of  a  dog  ceases  to  produce  the  re- 
action in  the  cat  during  the  blind  period,  and  unless 
one  is  aware  of  this,  all  sorts  of  erroneous  conclusions 
may  be  drawn  regarding  very  young  animals.  This 
tendency  to  rapid  fatigue  indicates,  in  reality,  both  why 
the  animals  do  sleep  and  must  sleep  so  often.  I  am 
quite  satisfied  that  any  sort  of  irritation,  whether  from 
within  or  from  without,  that  will  prevent  frequent 
periods  of  sleep  occurring,  will  disorder  the  health  and 
even  cause  death  in  young  animals,  and  I  believe  this 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS      225 

is  one  reason  why  parasites  are  so  injurious  to  very 
young  animals. 

As  in  the  case  of  the  dog,  a  young  kitten,  even  on 
the  day  of  its  birth,  will  be  slow  to  crawl  off  a  surface 
— as  a  table.  These  animals  have  what  amounts  to  a 
sense  of  support,  the  absence  of  which  causes  them 
uneasy  sensations.  They  turn  away  from  the  space 
beyond  their  support  because  it  does  not  afford  the 
essential  sensation,  and  as  I  have  remarked  in  my  first 
paper  on  the  dog,  this  seems  to  me  as  fundamental  as 
anything  that  is  to  be  found  in  animal  psychology. 

In  the  cat,  as  in  the  dog,  the  winking  reflex  is  slowly 
developed,  and  is  never  so  marked  as  in  man.  A  cat 
can  look  at  one  much  more  steadily  than  a  dog,  and  for 
a  longer  time,  a  fact  which  has  its  own  psychical 
significance. 

The  cat  knows  no  shyness  or  modesty  in  the  sense  in 
which  a  dog,  especially  a  pure-bred  dog,  experiences 
such  a  feeling. 

In  one  particular  the  cat  is  greatly  in  advance  of  the 
dog  at  the  corresponding  period,  and  also  finally,  viz. 
in  co-ordination  of  voluntary  movements. 

Though  according  to  my  notes,  the  kitten  did  not 
begin  to  use  the  limbs  in  scratching  (quite  a  complicated 
movement  for  a  young  animal)  much  before  the  puppy, 
if  at  all,  still  progress,  even  in  this  direction,  was  much 
more  rapid  in  the  cat.  I  have  taken  care  to  give  a  very 
complete  account  of  the  movements  (actions)  of  the 
kitten,  so  that  there  might  be  available  a  full  history 
of  the  development  of  these  movements  in  an  animal 
in  which  they  finally  reach  extraordinary  perfection. 

There  is  no  comparison  between  a  puppy's  range  of 
co-ordinated  movements  at  three  months,  and  those  of 
a  kitten  of  the  same  age. 

That  in  the  course  of  evolution  the  possession  of  sharp 
nails  has  had  much  to  do  with  this,  1  feel  satisfied. 

p 


226  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

In  both  dog  and  cat  the  cortical  centre  of  the  brain 
for  the  fore-limb  is  readily  excited  by  artificial  stimu- 
lation ;  but  this  crude  method  and  general  result  do 
not  bring  out  the  differences  that  the  animal  can  by 
its  own  will  accomplish,  and  serves,  when  taken  with 
the  facts  of  the  animal's  actual  life,  only  to  show  how 
very  imperfect  are  our  physiological  imitations  of  will- 
power in  these  animals. 

None  of  our  domestic  animals  has  such  power  over 
the  fore-limbs  as  the  cat,  and  this  is  well  established 
when  the  animal  is  even  two  months  old.  The  develop- 
ment, as  my  diary  shows,  is  very  rapid  when  once  it 
begins. 

And  this  is  closely  related  to  the  play  of  the  kitten. 

Play  is  especially  instructive.  The  young  animal 
has  an  excess  of  vital  energy.  Very  soon  this  begins 
to  express  itself  in  imitative  actions.  I  hope  my 
diaries  will  furnish  scope  for  comparison  of  the  puppy 
and  the  kitten  as  regards  play.  Herein  the  animals 
differ  widely,  and  reflect  to  perfection  their  psychic 
moods. 

The  crouching,  lying-in-wait,  the  concealment,  of 
which  I  have  made  several  records  for  the  kitten,  are 
only  late  and  comparatively  feebly  developed  in  the 
dog — all  of  which  is,  of  course,  related  to  the  manner 
in  which  the  mature  animal  secures  its  prey  in  the 
wild  state. 

The  Canidce  hunt  either  alone  or  in  packs,  and  rely 
on  swiftness  and  concerted  action. 

The  Felidce  lie  in  wait,  mostly  alone  or  in  pairs,  and 
spring  on  their  prey,  so  the  kitten,  when  quite  young, 
does  not  wait  for  a  mouse  to  appear,  but  gives  its 
instinct  free  scope  in  its  attacks  on  flies,  and  if  these 
be  not  forthcoming,  it  will,  out  of  something,  construct 
imaginary  prey  for  its  gratification. 

Again,  the  cat  is  very  slow  to  develop,  as  my  diary 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS      227 

shows,  the  social  instincts  so  far  as  man  and  other 
animals  are  concerned.  How  seldom  a  cat  seems  even 
to  miss  its  old  friends,  if  indeed  they  are  to  it  friends. 
Not  that  I  believe  the  cat  an  entirely  ungrateful 
animal.  It  is  very  sensitive  to  good  and  to  bad  treat- 
ment, but  it  is  not  dependent  on  man  either  physically 
or  psychically.  The  cat  may,  of  its  own  accord,  take 
to  the  fields  and  woods  to  secure  an  independent 
existence,  and  so  long  as  the  environment  is  favourable, 
it  may,  it  would  seem,  be  utterly  oblivious  alike  of 
friends  and  foes. 

This  independence  was  shown  quite  early  in  the  case 
of  my  kitten.  At  the  same  time,  one  of  the  most 
interesting  features  in  this  psychic  study  has  been 
noting  the  way  in  which  higher  mental  states  and 
better  qualities  prevailed  in  the  end  in  this  kitten, 
under  good  treatment.  It  had  finally  become  social 
and  affectionate,  discriminating  in  favour  of  the  one 
who  had  really  done  the  most  for  its  comfort.  But  of 
self-denying,  purely  unselfish  devotion  to  a  master,  as 
in  the  case  of  the  dog,  there  seems  to  be  little — very 
little — in  the  cat.  But  puss  is  no  flatterer,  and  her 
readiness  to  resent  ill-treatment  may  have  had  much 
to  do  with  her  not  occupying  a  higher  position  in  man's 
esteem. 

I  have,  myself,  raised  a  cat  from  the  depth  of  de- 
gradation, so  to  speak,  to  self-respect  and  the  respect 
of  others  by  patient  and  persevering  good  treatment, 
and  I  am  anxious  to  record  the  fact,  as  I  believe  the 
cat  to  be  much  misunderstood,  and  its  intelligence 
greatly  underrated. 

If  the  term  intelligence  be  employed  in  a  wide  sense, 
and  be  made  to  cover  the  power  an  animal  has  to 
adapt  means  to  ends,  in  a  more  or  less  conscious  way, 
including  the  adaptation  of  its  own  organisation  to  the 
environment,  then  the  diary  of  the  cat  will  furnish  an 


228  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

interesting  record  bearing  on  this  subject.  In  fact, 
from  this  point  of  view,  the  cat,  during  the  first  three 
months  of  its  life,  is  decidedly  in  advance  of  the  dog. 

In  the  mature  cat,  instinct  in  securing  prey  plays  so 
prominent  a  part,  that  we  are  apt  to  overlook  a  great 
deal  in  the  mental  experience  of  the  cat.  Her  psychic 
life  is  withdrawn  from  us  to  a  greater  extent  than  that 
of  most  of  our  domestic  animals.  I  do  not  know  of  a 
single  good  history  of  the  complete  development  of  the 
cat  from  birth  to  maturity,  so  that  I  regret  the  more 
the  loss  of  my  kitten  before  she  had  reached  the  age  of 
at  least  one  year. 

The  diary  also  shows  that  the  cat  has  a  good  memory, 
though  whether  equal  to,  or  better  than,  that  of  the 
dog,  I  am  not  prepared  to  say;  the  evidence  is  in- 
sufficient for  the  purpose. 

On  the  question  of  will-power  there  is,  however, 
ample  evidence  for  making  comparisons. 

If  the  quivering  movements  of  the  ears  were  im- 
perfect voluntary  movements,  these  may  be  considered 
about  the  first  manifestation  of  will  in  the  kitten,  and 
there  is  nothing  to  correspond  to  this  in  the  dog  at  so 
early  a  state. 

While  attempts  to  get  from  the  original  nest  or 
home  took  place  at  an  early  period  in  both  the  dog 
and  the  cat,  they  were  more  persistent  in  the  latter. 

I  have  given,  in  considerable  detail,  the  history  of  the 
kitten's  attempts  to  get  into  my  book-shelves,  etc.,  and 
I  must  repeat  that  this  furnishes  to  me  the  most  im- 
pressive evidence  of  the  existence  of,  a  strong  will- 
power, intelligently  expressed,  that  has  ever  come 
under  my  observation  in  so  young  an  animal  of  any 
kind.  While  I  think  that  the  kitten,  whose  history  I 
have  recorded,  was  above  the  average  in  strength  of 
character,  if  1  may  so  express  it,  yet,  in  making  all 
allowance  for  this,  there  is  still  a  very  large  margin  in 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS      229 

favour  of  the  cat.  I  doubt  if  the  dog  does  at  any  period 
of  his  life  possess  this  persistence  to  the  same  extent 
as  the  cat,  and,  as  in  many  human  beings,  this  character- 
istic is  associated  with  unusual  physical  stamina.  The 
cat's  power  to  live,  in  spite  of  its  unfavourable  sur- 
roundings, and  her  power  to  resist  disease  and  recover 
from  injury,  are  undoubtedly  greater  than  in  the  dog. 

The  cat  is  notoriously  an  independent  creature,  and 
in  common  estimation  devoid,  or  nearly  so,  of  docility  ; 
but  this  very  independence  and  readiness  to  resent 
tends,  as  I  have  before  explained,  to  cause  the  cat  to  be 
misunderstood.  I  have,  with  set  purpose,  given  in  great 
detail  my  kitten's  history,  with  reference  to  education 
in  cleanliness,  and  growing  out  of  this  subject  alone,  a 
long,  and  I  venture  to  think,  valuable  paper  might  be 
written  on  the  subject  of  the  education  of  animals  and 
human  beings. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  kitten's  instincts  were 
met  by  placing  a  sand-pan  directly  in  its  path  from  a 
box  in  which  it  slept  to  the  book-shelves,  which  it  was 
determined  to  visit. 

From  the  first  moment  that  its  foot  was  placed  in  the 
sand,  I  noticed  that  a  powerful  appeal  had  been  made 
to  the  creature's  psychic  nature, — a  new  experience 
engendered  a  new  psychic  life, —  awakened  dormant 
emotions,  tendencies,  etc.,  and  these  were  fundamental. 
To  my  mind,  this  is  at  the  very  root  of  all  sound 
education. 

At  times,  it  is  true,  a  little  gentle  restraint  had  to 
be  used  to  prevent  the  chain  of  psychic  connections 
forged  by  these  experiences  from  being  broken.  But 
how  different  the  result  in  this  case  from  that  which 
followed  opposition  to  the  kitten's  going  among  the 
book-shelves.  The  latter  was  an  instructive  thing,  the 
expression  of  the  feline  nature  to  seek  retirement  in 
the  day-time,  and  so  strong  was  it,  and  so  supported  by 


230  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

will-power  and  intelligence,  that  this  kitten  baffled 
human  efforts  in  this  case  to  go  counter  to  its  nature. 
I  have  been  accustomed  to  encourage  even  young 
puppies,  as  soon  as  they  are  able  to  leave  their  nest, 
to  form  habits  of  cleanliness,  but  I  have  no  notes  on 
this  subject  at  all  so  complete  as  in  the  case  of  this 
kitten,  though  some  will  be  found  in  my  first  paper  on 
the  dog. 

But  I  now  leave  the  reader  with  the  diary  before 
him  to  draw  his  own  conclusions. 

The  cat  can  be  taught  much,  but  her  education  must 
be  conducted  somewhat  differently  from  the  dog's, 
because  her  nature  is  not  in  all  respects  like  his. 

The  dog,  especially  the  pure-bred  dog,  is  docility  it- 
self. The  dog  may  be  forced  to  obey,  the  cat  cannot. 
The  dog  usually  delights  to  obey,  or  at  all  events  to 
meet  the  approval  of  his  master,  and  he  only  fails  to 
make  this  evident  when  carried  away  by  the  force  of 
his  instincts.  The  cat  may  be  coaxed  or  bribed  into 
docility,  but  the  latter  is  not  a  prominent  feature  in 
her  character. 

It  is  a  mistake,  however,  to  suppose  that  the  cat 
cannot  be  taught,  and  taught  much,  and  I  think  the 
diary  of  the  kitten,  to  go  no  further,  shows  this  clearly. 

Certain  it  is,  however,  that  one  will  learn  more  of 
the  cat's  intelligence  by  quiet  observation,  than  by  any 
attempt  to  form  her  nature  by  education,  after  the 
manner  so  successful  with  the  dog. 

The  tendency  of  the  kitten  to  arouse  in  the  evening, 
and  display  an  activity  greater  than  during  a  large  part 
of  the  day,  is,  to  my  mind,  an  early  exhibition  of  a 
fundamental  trait  in  the  psychic  life  of  the  Felidce. 

They  are  essentially  nocturnal  animals,  and  to  witness 
how  early  this  was  shown  was  interesting. 

I  have  noticed  nothing  like  this  in  puppies,  though 
it  must  be  remembered  that  the  cat  is  more  like  her 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS      231 

feral  congeners,  and  reverts  to  a  wild  state  more  readily 
than  the  dog — in  fact,  that  such  reversion  is  far  from 
uncommon. 

In  my  first  paper  on  the  dog,  I  have  called  attention 
to  suggestive  actions.  In  the  true  sense  of  the  word, 
the  cat  is  perhaps  less  imitative  than  the  dog,  but  so 
great  is  her  tendency  to  be  excited  by  any  kind  of 
motion,  that  she  can,  as  is  well  known,  be  set  into 
activity,  with  the  greatest  ease,  by  a  ball,  or  almost 
any  moving  object  when  a  kitten  of  a  certain  age. 

In  this  susceptibility  the  cat  is  in  advance  of  the 
dog — in  fact,  her  motor  energy  is  more  intense,  and 
her  power  of  correlated  movement  much  greater,  but  I 
am  inclined  to  consider  that  in  all  this  the  cat  is  less 
imitative  than  the  dog.  The  behaviour  of  one  kitten 
has  less  influence  on  the  others  than  of  one  puppy  on 
his  fellows. 

The  individuality  of  the  cat  is  intense,  though  it 
is  the  individuality  of  a  strong  nature  manifesting 
itself  by  independence  rather  than  great  difference  in 
conduct. 

As  an  admirable  example  of  associated  reflexes,  to 
which  reference  has  been  made  in  treating  of  the 
dog,  the  history  of  the  sand-pan  furnishes  excellent 
examples. 

The  whole  history  of  the  kitten  is  an  illustration 
that,  however  strong  instincts  may  be  in  an  intelligent 
animal,  its  psychic  life  is  determined  by  experience,  i.e. 
there  comes  to  be  almost  no  pure  instincts — instincts  un- 
modified by  experience,  if  such  a  thing  is  conceivable,  as 
the  language  of  some  writers  would  seem  to  imply.  Each 
day  of  this  kitten's  life  showed  me  a  progress  dependent 
on  experience, and  the  same  applies  to  the  dog;  but  I  must 
add  that  for  the  first  eight  or  ten  weeks  the  kitten 
seemed  to  get  the  most  out  of  its  experience,  though  in 
the  case  of  the  mongrel,  whose  nature,  as  I  have  pointed 


ANIMAL   INTELLIGENCE 

out,  seemed  after  a  time  to  develop  with  great  rapidity, 
under  the  impulse  of  experience,  was  a  rival  in  this 
respect  with  the  cat ;  but  that  case  is  exceptional,  I 
must  believe. 

As  regards  reasoning,  I  have  in  nowise  changed  the 
opinions  I  expressed  in  my  first  paper  on  the  dog,  and 
I  would  apply  them  with  almost,  if  not  quite  equal, 
force  to  the  cat. 

Some  General  Conclusions. 

The  conclusions  that  may  be  drawn  from  the  diaries 
of  the  dog  and  the  cat  respectively,  with  certain  modi- 
fications in  some  directions,  hold  for  both. 

This  applies  especially  to  the  larger  proportion  of 
what  is  most  fundamental,  to  what  is  instinctive,  and 
is  bound  up  with  the  vegetative  life  of  the  creature. 

Nevertheless,  even  in  some  of  these  fundamentals  of 
psychic  life  there  are  differences,  e.g.  in  the  mode  of 
waiting  for  and  securing  prey,  differences  which  appear 
long  before  development  is  complete. 

Upon  the  whole,  the  cat  develops  more  rapidly  than 
the  dog. 

The  greatest  difference  between  the  cat  and  the  dog 
is  in  their  relations  to  man  and  to  their  own  species. 

The  dog  is  essentially  a  social  and  a  gregarious 
animal ;  the  cat  an  independent  and  solitary  creature, 
traits  which  are  early  shown. 

The  dog  is  docile  in  the  highest  degree ;  the  cat  to  a 
slight  degree,  as  compared  with  the  intelligence  she 
possesses. 

The  cat  is  far  in  advance  of  the  dog  in  power  to 
execute  highly  complex  co-ordinated  movements. 

In  both  the  dog  and  cat  the  play  instinct  is  early 
and  highly  developed,  but  in  the  manifestation  of  this, 
the  peculiar  qualities  of  each  are  well  exhibited. 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS      233 

In  will-power  and  ability  to  maintain  an  independent 
existence,  the  cat  is  superior  to  the  dog. 

In  the  higher  grades  of  intelligence,  the  wisest  dogs 
are  much  in  advance  of  the  most  knowing  cats,  which 
is  foreshadowed,  if  not  actually  exemplified,  in  the  early 
months  of  existence. 

The  nature  of  the  dog,  as  compared  with  the  cat, 
tends  to  beget  prejudices  in  his  favour  with  the  mass 
of  persons,  in  any  comparisons  as  to  intelligence, 
desirable  qualities,  etc.,  so  that  there  can  be  little  doubt 
that  in  general  the  dog  is  over-estimated  and  the  cat 
under-estimated  by  the  great  majority  of  persons ;  at 
the  same  time,  the  nature  of  the  dog  is  much  nearer 
that  of  man's  than  is  the  cat's. 

The  kitten  may  amuse,  but  even  a  puppy  dog  touches 
chords  of  sympathy  in  the  heart  of  man  that  the  cat 
can  never  reach. 


V. — THE  BABBIT  AND  THE  CAVY,  OR  GUINEA-PIG. 

IN  pursuance  of  the  plan  followed  in  other  papers,  I 
shall  first  give  a  record  of  observations  on  which  to 
base  conclusions. 

Both  common  and  pure-bred  rabbits  have  been 
studied,  and  this  rodent  will  be  considered  before  any 
comparison  is  made  with  the  cavy  or  guinea-pig. 

The  following  notes  refer  to  a  litter  of  common 
rabbits. 

Diary. 

1st  day. — The  animals  are  found  on  the  first  day  to 
be  blind,  the  eyelids  not  yet  having  opened,  and  deaf. 
They  are  also  naked,  or  almost  entirely  lack  hair. 


234  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

They  can  move  about,  but  only  in  a  sprawling,  feeble 
way. 

They  lie  in  a  nest  lined  with  the  mother's  hair,  and 
the  slightest  movement  near  causes  them  great  dis- 
turbance. 

A  couple  are  removed  from  the  nest  after  making 
observations  on  them  there,  and  taken  into  the  house 
for  closer  study. 

The  slightest  touch,  or  even  a  slight  puff  of  air  from 
the  mouth  causes  them  much  disturbance  ;  they  move 
in  an  irregular,  ill-co-ordinated  way,  but  evidently  are 
greatly  affected. 

It  is  especially  difficult  to  get  anything  near  the 
mouth  without  causing  movement,  owing,  no  doubt,  in 
part  at  least,  to  the  "  feelers  "  in  some  instances,  but 
not  always. 

A  fly  crawling  across  the  head  causes  jerky  move- 
ments of  the  head  as  a  whole,  and  of  the  ears. 

Irritating  liquids,  as  blistering  fluid,  iodine,  carbolic 
acid,  etc.,  when  held  before  the  nose,  cause  movements 
of  face  parts. 

Aloes,  in  solution,  and  milk  placed  before  the  nose 
give  negative  results. 

When  solutions  of  Epsom  salts,  common  salt,  and  aloes 
are  placed  on  the  tongue,  this  organ  is  protruded  in  a 
way  suggestive  of  dislike. 

There  is  in  one  case  even  a  feeble  attempt  to  wipe 
away  the  substance  with  the  paws. 

A  pinch  causes  violent  movements,  though  there  is 
no  sound  made.  In  fact,  as  far  as  my  observations  go, 
young  rabbits  rarely,  if  ever,  utter  any  sound. 

The  ears  are  inclined  backward  and  lie  close  to  the 
head,  as  in  dogs,  cats,  etc.,  at  birth. 

The  animal  can  manage  to  stand  for  a  moment,  after 
a  fashion,  but  the  usual  mode  of  progression  is  by  a 
sort  of  crawling. 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS      235 

From  the  first  the  respiratory  movements  of  the 
nostrils,  so  characteristic  of  rabbits,  are  shown. 

They  can  also  wipe  the  face  with  the  fore-paws — a 
very  characteristic  act  of  the  rabbit,  or  perhaps  one 
should  say,  of  the  rodent. 

The  manner  in  which  they  push  under  one  another 
and  huddle  together,  shows  how  they,  like  other  young 
animals,  are  rendered  uneasy  by  cold  and  quieted  by 
warmth. 

They  will  not  crawl  off  a  surrace,  but  when  they  near 
the  edge  turn  back. 

3rd  day. — There  is  a  very  noticeable  increase  in  size. 

Their  movements  are  more  pronounced. 

The  first  scratching  of  a  surface  (in  this  case,  my  hand, 
as  one  lies  upon  it)  noticed. 

This  is  a  highly  characteristic  act  of  mature  rabbits. 

When  they  are  put  back  into  the  straw  near  the  nest 
proper,  they  push  through  and  get  to  the  other  young  xp 
ones  in  the  nest,  evidently  attracted  by  the  warmth.      ^ 

Cannot  induce  them  to  suck  my  finger,  as  puppies 
will  do  readily,  though  a  little  more  inclined  to  suck  the 
lips  or  the  end  of  the  tongue. 

4:th  day. — Hair  is  now  growing  over  the  whole  sur-/ 
face  of  the  body. 

7th  day. — Irritating  liquids  used  before  now  produce 
more  decided  results,  and  at  greater  distance. 

The  evidence  that  milk  is  smelt,  though  doubtful  in 
one  case,  seems  clear  in  another. 

Testing  as  regards  taste  I  have  found  very  difficult 
in  the  rabbit,  as  the  tendency  to  withdraw  the  mouth 
suddenly  is  very  strong. 

There  seems  to  be  no  doubt,  however,  that  a  solution 
of  aloes  produced  disgust. 

There  is  a  great  advance  in  movements.  They  are 
very  quick  and  irregular,  and  may  be  to  one  side  or  the 
other  as  likely  as  forward  or  backward.  ^Reference 


236  ANIMAL   INTELLIGENCE 

is  especially  made  now  to  movements  produced  re- 
flexly. 

When  placed  on  a  table,  the  young  rabbit  moves 
about  in  a  circle,  in  a  half-crawling  fashion,  and  feeling 
\  the  way,  as  it  were,  with  the  head. 

It  uses  the  paws  fairly  well  to  get  rid  of  anything,  e.g. 
a  feather  put  against  the  mouth. 

It  is  easy  enough  now  to  make  out  the  colour  of  the 
various  members  of  the  litter. 

The  ears  are  held  back  and  down  only  as  yet,  still 
there  is  an  approach  to  the  position  of  the  ears,  at  times 
of  old  rabbits. 

When  irritating  substances  are  put  before  the  nose 
the  ears  are  moved,  probably  reflexly. 

They  are  still  both  blind  and  deaf. 

9th  day. — Twitching,  as  in  the  case  of  puppies  and 
kittens,  is  noticed  during  sleep. 

Wth  day. — The  eyes  of  some  of  the  litter  are  now 
open. 

When  I  produce  a  short,  sharp  sound  by  a  dog- whistle, 
taking  care  that  they  do  not  feel  the  blast  of  air,  they 
move,  turn  the  head  to  one  side,  and  also  move  the  ears. 
The  effect  is  less  pronounced  after  two  or  three  trials 
(exhaustion)  though  very  marked  at  first. 

Can  get  no  clear  evidence  of  vision,  nor  any  eye 
reflexes,  such  as  winking. 

There  is  such  a  tendency  to  jump  about  that  one 
almost  leaped  from  my  hands,  though  the  source  of  the 
stimulus  was  not  obvious. 

Ilth  day. — The  eyes  of  some  are  not  yet  open. 

13th  day. — A  great  advance  in  growth  is  to  be 
observed  within  a  very  few  days. 

When  one  touches  the  nose,  or  other  parts  of  the  head, 
they  almost  jump  out  of  the  nest,  reminding  me  of  an 
animal  reacting  to  a  stimulus,  when  under  the  influence 
of  strychnine. 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS      23*7 

Very  decided  advance  made  in  the  position  of  the  ears  ; 
they  are  more  upright  and  are  moved  more  readily. 

Can  get  no  evidence  of  vision. 

Can  get  no  reflex  from  the  eyes  till  the  cornea  is 
touched,  and  not  very  good  then. 

About  the  hearing  there  can  be  no  doubt  whatever. 

\4th  day. — The  ear  carriage  is  still  better.     Eye  re- 
flexes feebly  present. 

They  are  found  out  of  the  nest,  and  go  to  the  mother 
to  suck  when  distant  from  her  2  or  3  inches. 

15th  day. — Since  they  strike  against  the  side  of  the 
nest  (board)  I  am  satisfied  there  is  no  distinct  vision. 

They  are  able  to  reach  the  mother  when  3  or  4  inches 
distant. 

They  seem  to  smell  fresh,  green  food  placed  in  the 
larger  box,  with  which  their  nest  communicates. 

They  do  not  seem  to  start  quite  so  much  when 
touched  as  they  did. 

The  rapidity  of  general  growth,  and  especially  of  the 
hair,  is  impressive. 

There  is  an  obvious  advance  in  smell  and  taste. 

While  not  certain,  I  have  a  suspicion  that  they  begin 
to  distinguish  objects.  They  possibly  take  notice  of 
shadows. 

The  first  attempt  at  eating  made  to-day  by  nibbling 
at  grass  put  before  them. 

They  now  begin  to  lope  in  the  manner  peculiar  to 
rabbits. 

They  also  begin  to  get  up  on  the  hind  legs. 

They  will  by  no  means  creep  off  any  surface  on  which 
they  are  placed. 

They  now  hear  a  soft  whistle  at  from  4  to  6  feet,  as 
is  evidenced  by  starting  movements  and  ear  movements 
(reflex). 

The  ears,  however,  do  not  move  backward  or  forward 
but  laterally. 


238  ANIMAL   INTELLIGENCE 

These  organs  are  now  thinner,  held  more  erect,  and 
better  unfolded,  so  to  speak. 

16th  day. — I  think  they  begin  to  distinguish  objects 
by  sight,  though  it  is  difficult  to  demonstrate  this. 

It  is  impossible  to  produce  the  winking  reflex  till  the 
eyes  are  actually  touched. 

17th  day. — It  is  difficult  now  to  say  whether  they 
approach  objects  through  sight  or  smell. 

18th  day. — When  I  sneezed  close  to  their  box  to-day, 
they  all  huddled  together,  in  a  startled  way,  in  a  corner 
of  their  nest,  in  a  manner  very  characteristic  of  older 
rabbits  when  alarmed. 

By  the  manner  in  which  they  leave  and  enter  their 
nests,  I  conclude  that  they  retain  the  memory  of  the 
relations  of  objects,  apart  from  visual  and  olfactory 
sensations. 

The  mother  is  now  weaning  her  offspring. 

One  is  seen  circling  around  in  the  box,  as  if  attempt- 
ing to  find  the  mother  by  feeling,  making  it  doubtful  if 
distinct  vision  is  even  yet  possible  to  them. 

To-day  they  eat  clover. 

20th  day. — They  not  ODly  eat  green  food,  but  gnaw 
at  a  crust  of  stale  bread. 

They  jump  about  in  the  box,  as  if  playing. 

They  seem  to  follow  by  smell  a  green  stalk  I  hold  in 
my  hand. 

One  is  so  startled  by  my  sneezing  that  it  jumped  off 
the  top  of  a  barrel  on  which  I  had  placed  it. 

The  ears  are  now  relatively  longer  and  thinner,  and 
are  better  held. 

21st  day. — They  detect  objects  (food)  by  smell  at  an 
increased  distance. 

They  are  leaping  about  a  good  deal,  apparently  from 
excess  of  vitality. 

22nd  day. — Th&y  follow  my  finger  as  I  move  it,  so  that 
I  think  there  is  now  no  doubt  that  this  is  done  by  sight. 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS      239 

They  eat  stale  bread  quite  well. 

24^  day. — The  young  rabbits  are  removed  to  a  large 
cage.  They  now  show  fear  when  a  sudden  motion  is 
made,  showing  that  they  see  well — at  some  little  distance 
at  least — and  I  am  under  the  impression  that  this  was 
the  case  two  or  three  days  ago. 

They  now  lope  mostly  like  older  rabbits,  i.e.  they  use 
the  two  hind  legs  together — a  sort  of  leaping. 

26th  day. — They  appear  now  to  see  objects  at  a 
distance  of  3  or  4  feet,  if  not  more. 

28th  day. — They  move  on  the  waving  of  a  hat  at  a 
distance  of  8  feet. 

29th  day. — Being  cool  to-day,  they  are  quieter,  and 
huddle  together. 

30th  day. — They  seem  now  to  be  practically  mature, 
from  a  psychic  standpoint. 

Diary  of  Himalayan  Rabbits. 

I  now  give  some  extracts  from  notes  on  a  litter  of 
pure -bred  rabbits,  which  may,  in  some  directions, 
supplement  the  facts  recorded  above,  and  in  others 
furnish  grounds  for  comparisons  and  contrasts. 

2nd  day. — A  breath  of  air  causes  reflex  movements. 

One  of  the  litter  is  seen  to  use  its  hind-leg  to  scratch 
itself. 

3rd  day. — They  are  seen  to  use  the  hind-legs  to 
scratch  the  body,  and  the  fore-legs  to  wipe  the  face. 

4th  day. — Already  they  show  jerkiness  in  movement 
under  the  slightest  stimulation. 

6th  day. — Any  attempt  at  voluntary  movement,  if 
such  it  may  be  called,  is  very  jerky. 

When  put  on  a  barrel  top,  one  of  the  rabbits  turns 
round,  but  does  not  crawl  off. 

Sth  day. — Placed  one  on  the  barrel  top  again.  When 
the  hand  is  held  near,  it  will  move  towards  it,  attracted 
by  the  heat  probably — possibly  by  smell. 


240  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

Wth  day. — Eyes  not  yet  open. 

Green  food  held  within  2  or  3  inches  is  sniffed 
at. 

Hair  has  now  grown  on  the  body  to  the  length  of  a 
quarter  of  an  inch. 

12th  day. — Eyes  of  some  of  the  litter  now  open,  but 
not  of  all. 

The  slightest  touch  with  a  leaf  of  green  food  causes 
them  to  leap  in  the  nest. 

They  now  move  the  ears  and  start  when  I  produce  a 
moderately  loud  noise  with  a  dog-whistle.  The  ears 
are  moved  to  the  extent  of  one-quarter  to  one-half  inch. 

14th  day. — They  now  move  readily  from  the  nest, 
which,  as  in  the  former  case,  is  situated  in  one  corner, 
and  elevated  a  few  inches,  to  some  other  part  of  the 
box  and  back. 

Suspect  feeble  vision,  but  cannot  demonstrate  it. 

They  begin  to  nibble  green  food. 

15th  day. — Their  mode  of  progression  is  more  like  that 
of  the  mature  rabbit,  i.e.  loping  rather  than  walking,  in 
the  ordinary  sense  of  the  word. 

17th  day. — They  are  seen  not  only  to  lick  and  scratch, 
but  to  lite. 

ISth  day. — Begin  to  poke  into  corners  now  when 
placed  on  the  floor. 

19th  day. — There  is  no  doubt  that  they  now  see. 

2Qth  day. — One  now  begins  to  show  the  dark  markings 
on  tail,  ears,  and  nose,  characteristic  of  the  breed. 

They  now  scratch  hard  at  the  wood  of  their  box  at 
times. 

21st  day. — They  eat  oats. 

26th  day. — A  fair  pad  of  hair  has  developed  on  the 
foot. 

They  are  now  put  down  with  the  members  of  the 
other  litter,  twenty-two  days  older,  and  act  very  much 
as  they  do. 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS      241 

28th  day. — Their  hair  has  grown  about  as  long  as 
that  of  their  parents. 

The  Cavy,  or  Guinea-Pig. 

The  following  notes  were  made  on  a  litter  of  common 
cavies,  and  will  serve  to  mark  the  contrast  between  this 
rodent  and  the  rabbit  in  the  rate  of  development,  etc. 

Diary. 

The  cavies  were  born  between  2  P.M.  and  5.30  P.M.  in 
July,  and  were  tested  at  9  A.M. — say,  after  about  seven- 
teen hours. 

Not  only  are  the  eyes  open,  but  they  see  well,  and 
when  the  finger  is  moved  before  the  eyes  the  winking 
reflex  follows. 

Some  of  them  are  placed  on  my  study  table,  and  run 
so  fast  they  almost  get  off  the  table  before  being  caught. 

The  ears  are  well  opened  up,  and  when  I  whistle 
moderately  they  again  run  almost  off  the  table. 

I  find  it  more  difficult  to  demonstrate  whether  they 
smell  or  not  than  in  the  case  of  the  rabbit. 

When  volatile,  pungent  liquids,  like  blistering  fluids. 
are  placed  near,  the  eyes  seem  to  close,  and  the  same 
happens  with  aloes. 

Like  rabbits,  they  are  born  with  teeth  (in  front),  and 
this  makes  it  not  very  easy  to  get  things  into  the  mouth 
to  test  taste. 

I  am  quite  unable  to  decide  whether  they  taste  or  not. 

They  are  tested  again  at  11  A.M.  the  same  day. 

Pungent,  volatile  liquids,  such  as  used  with  the 
rabbit,  and  aloes  do  not  seem  to  affect  them  so  much  as 
the  rabbits,  e.g.  no  sneezing  is  produced. 

When  a  feather,  dipped  in  a  solution  of  sugar,  is 
placed  in  the  mouth  it  is  sucked,  but  they  turn  away 
from  similar  treatment  with  aloes. 


242  ANIMAL   INTELLIGENCE 

A  couple  of  them  are  put  into  a  box  18  by  18  inches, 
in  which  there  is  some  salt,  some  brown  sugar,  some 
"  peppermint  rock  "  candy,  and  some  camphor. 

They  licked  at  the  salt  once  but  did  not  repeat  this, 
but  went  again  and  again  to  the  sugar  or  remained  by 
it.  They  did  not  remain  near  the  other  substances. 
They  were  not  kept  long  in  this  box. 

A  leaf  of  lettuce  was  just  after  placed  before  them. 
They  seemed  to  like  to  be  near  it,  and  very  soon 
began  to  nibble  at  it. 

They  wipe  the  face  with  the  paws  much  like  a 
mature  cavy. 

Of  the  three  constituting  the  litter  one  was  from  the 
first  much  larger. 

The  larger  one  was  observed  to  get  from  its  nest  to 
the  box,  a  distance  of  2  inches,  when  not  more  than 
three  and  a  half  hours  old. 

2nd  day. — At  1.30  P.M.  one  of  the  cavies  was  put 
into  the  box  occupied  by  a  rabbit.  It  did  not  approach 
or  attempt  to  suck  it.  I  am  satisfied  it  recognised  the 
creature  as  "  strange." 

It  eats  sugar  from  my  finger,  and  follows  the  finger 
by  sight  I  think. 

The  eye  must  be  almost  touched  before  the  winking 
inflex  is  produced. 

3rd  day. — Nibbling  at  green  food. 

4:th  day. — Eating  green  food. 

7th  day. — Eating  food,  oats,  and  stale  bread,  and  they 
seem,  in  most  respects,  to  act  like  old  cavies. 

8th  day. — One  is  taken  to  my  laboratory  for  the  pur- 
pose of  brain  study.  On  the  way  it  syueaks  a  good  deal. 

They  eat  well,  but  follow  up  the  mother  at  times 
to  suck. 

IQth  day. — They  now  eat  as  fast  and  well  as 
mature  animals,  and  in  nearly  all  essential  respects 
resemble  them. 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS      243 

There  seemed  to  be  little  more  to  record  though  they 
were  kept  to  maturity.  Other  litters  were  also  studied 
with  the  same  result. 

Remarks  on  the  Diary  of  the  Babbit. 

By  a  comparison  of  the  records  for  the  common  and 
the  pure-bred  rabbits,  it  might  appear  that  the  latter 
were,  in  some  respects,  in  advance  of  the  former,  but 
this  is  apparent  rather  than  real,  I  think,  as  in  the 
common  rabbit  observations  were  probably  not  made 
quite  early  enough  in  some  instances.  v 

The  marked  development  of  tactile  sensibility  at  so  \ 
early  an  age  in  the  rabbit  is  very  noteworthy.     The    ] 
creature  also  responds  unusually  well,  as  compared  with    / 
other  animals,  as  the  dog  and  cat,  to  pain-producing 
stimuli. 

While  there  is  the  same  uncertainty  as  to  taste  and 
smell  at  birth,  and  for  a  day  or  two,  upon  the  whole,  the 
evidence  is  in  favour  of  the  rabbit  being  in  advance 
somewhat  of  the  dog  and  the  cat  in  these  respects. 

The  total  absence  of  voice  in  the  young  is  in  harmony 
with  the  sparing  production  of  sounds  by  the  adult. 

The  movements  of  the  ears,  while  more  marked,  are 
more  akin  to  those  of  the  dog  than  of  the  cat. 

Movements  are  developed  sooner  in  the  rabbit,  and 
more  rapidly  become  of  the  kind  characteristic  of  the 
animal  group  than  in  the  dog  or  cat. 

The  very  early  date  (2nd  day)  on  which  scratching 
was  observed,  illustrates  the  rapidity  with  which  co- 
ordinated movements  reach  a  considerable  degree  of 
complexity. 

The  very  early  date  at  which  jerky  movements  are 
manifest,  and  which  are  later  represented  by  that  rapid 
scurrying  toward  a  burrow,  etc.,  is  noteworthy.  Few 
animals  equal  the  rabbit  in  this,  and  the  early  develop- 
ment of  these  movements  affords  another  instance  of 


244  ANIMAL   INTELLIGENCE 

what  seems  to  be  a  general  law  :  that  those  capabilities 
which  are  most  important  in  the  life  of  the  creature 
appear  early — at  all  events,  as  regards  qualities  essential 
to  the  maintenance  of  existence. 

It  will  be  observed  that  by  the  7th  day  taste  and 
smell  are  well  developed,  and  the  movements  of  the 
fore-limbs,  as  in  brushing  the  mouth,  excellently  co- 
ordinated. 

Hearing  and  vision  do  not  seem  to  be  developed  much 
sooner  than  in  the  cat  or  dog,  but  hearing  especially,  as 
in  these  creatures,  reaches  perfection  rapidly. 

In  spontaneous  attempts  at  eating,  the  rabbit  is  very 
much  in  advance  of  the  dog  and  cat. 

There  are  very  decided  physical  changes  accompany- 
ing the  psychic  ones,  many  of  which  have  been  noted 
in  the  diary. 

Remarks  on  the  Diary  of  the  Cavy  (Guinea-Pig) — The 
Rabbit  and  the  Cavy  Compared. 

The  cavy  shows  so  clearly,  soon  after  birth,  that  it 
sees,  hears,  smells,  tastes,  etc.,  that  it  would  be  hazard- 
ous to  assert  that  these  functions  do  not  exist  at  birth. 

However,  I  think  very  close  observation  convinces 
one  that  they  all  require  appropriate  stimuli  to  develop 
them — that  is  to  say,  a  cavy  does  not  see,  smell,  or  taste 
as  well  during  the  first  hour  of  its  life  as  it  does  a  few 
hours  later,  and  marked  as  is  the  progress,  there  is  a  real 
development,  though  the  steps  towards  perfection  are 
rapidly  taken. 

The  contrast  with  the  rabbit — not  to  mention  the  dog 
and  the  cat — in  the  condition  at  birth,  and  the  extreme 
rapidity  with  which  perfection  in  all  respects  is  attained, 
is  striking  in  the  highest  degree. 

During  the  first  five  or  six  days  of  life  the  rabbit 
and  the  cavy  are  wide  apart,  though  they  both  belong 
to  the  same  great  animal  group. 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS      245 

After  a  mouth  the  psychic  differences  are  slight,  and 
at  maturity  they  are  physically  much  alike,  though  the 
rabbit  is  probably  somewhat  higher  in  the  scale. 

In  the  one  case  the  development  of  body,  correlated 
with  a  certain  psychic  status  and  some  peculiarities, 
takes  place  in  utero,  in  the  other  case  after  birth,  and 
that  this  contrast  should  be  manifest  among  creatures 
in  many  respects  so  closely  allied,  both  physically  and 
psychically,  is  especially  instructive. 

Some  excellent  observations  on  the  cavy  will  be 
found  in  Prof.  Preyer's  "  The  Mind  of  the  Child." 

General  Conclusions. 

The  investigations  on  the  rabbit  and  the  cavy 
illustrate  sharp  contrasts  at  birth,  and  for  some  time 
after,  in  animals  that,  in  mature  life,  have  much  in 
common,  both  physically  and  psychically. 

The  cavy,  soon  after  birth,  is  able  to  care  for  itself, 
and  can  maintain  an  independent  existence. 

The  rabbit  at  birth  is  blind,  deaf,  incapable  of  any 
considerable  locomotive  power,  and  is,  generally  speak- 
ing, in  a  perfectly  helpless  condition. 

But  this  creature  attains  to  a  condition  of  comparative 
maturity,  physical  and  psychic,  within  a  month,  so  that 
it  is  then  quite  capable  of  caring,  in  all  respects,  for 
itself.  All  its  instincts,  except  the  sexual,  are  in  full 
development  about  this  time  or  soon  after. 

In  both  the  rabbit  and  the  cavy,  so  simple  is  their 
psychic  life,  that  there  is  little  to  note  by  way  of 
advance  after  they  are  a  few  weeks  old.* 


*  The  following  account,  by  Mr  T.  Mann  Jones,  shows  that  under 
special  circumstances  the  rabbit  may  show  not  a  little  intelligence  and 
"character"  :  "  In  consequence  of  the  difference  I  noted  in  ability 
and  character  as  between  young  and  old  rats,  when  I  was  a  boy,  in 
1862,  I  procured  eight  young  rabbits,  so  soon  as  they  could  really  do 
without  the  mother.  Within  a  couple  of  months  I  saw  that  the 


246  ANIMAL   INTELLIGENCE 

After  the  first  month  of  existence  comparison  with 
the  dog,  cat,  and  allied  creatures  ceases  to  be  suggestive. 
The  rodents  are  left  quite  behind.  They  seem  capable 
of  little  education  either  by  man  or  by  nature.  In 
other  words,  they  get  little  from  experience  beyond 
that  which  strengthens  their  instincts  and  emphasises 
their  simple  psychic  life. 

During  this  rapid  psychic  development,  physical 
changes  of  an  equally  rapid  and  decided  character  take 
place,  and  are  undoubtedly  correlated  with  the  psychic 
changes. 


VI. — THE  PIGEON — THE  DOMESTIC  FOWL. 
The  Pigeon. 

So  far  as  I  am  aware,  no  investigations  on  birds  of 
the  kind  set  forth  in  this  paper  have  been  made,  except 
in  the  case  of  the  domestic  fowl  and  the  pheasant.  As 
my  observations  on  the  pigeon  are  the  most  complete, 
they  will  be  recorded  first. 

I  have  bred  a  large  variety  of  pure-bred  pigeons  for 
many  years,  and  have  kept  notes  on  a  considerable 
number  of  subjects  relating  thereto,  but  the  following 
are  the  most  complete  consecutive  records  bearing  on 
the  psychic  development  of  pigeons  that  I  have  made, 
and  are  accompanied  with  a  fairly  complete  account  of 
contemporaneous  physical  changes;  and  I  trust  that 
so  long  an  acquaintance  with  pigeons  may  be  some 
guarantee  of  correct  observation  and  interpretation. 

majority  showed  distinct  '  character.'  I  selected  the  two  in  which 
this  was  most  marked.  One  associated  himself  with  my  cats  and 
fowl,  and  protected  the  young  chicks  by  driving  away  strange  cats. 
The  other  associated  with  the  family  and  children,  and  its  actions  to 
me  were  those  of  a  very  attached  dog.  It  appeared  to  take  an  interest 
in  everything  I  did,  sat  beside  me  when  I  was  analysing,  and  moved 
among  my  apparatus  with  the  caution  so  often  noticeable  in  the  cat." 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS      247 

My  pigeons  have  been  kept  in  a  large,  airy,  clean  loft, 
have  been  well  fed,  and  provided  with  plenty  of  good 
water — a  most  important  matter  in  the  case  of  pigeons. 

They  have  been  at  liberty  to  fly  out  of  the  loft  freely 
almost  every  day.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  state  of 
health  in  the  entire  loft  has  been  good. 

All  of  these  things  are,  of  course,  of  importance  in 
interpreting  the  records  that  follow. 

It  seemed  to  me  highly  desirable  that  not  only 
different  breeds,  but  different  individuals  should  be  the 
subject  of  observation. 

I  would  remind  those  not  familiar  with  the  habits  of 
pigeons  that  the  male  and  female,  unlike  domestic 
animals,  pair  up  mostly  for  life  if  not  interfered  with, 
so  that,  speaking  generally,  a  number  of  pairs  may  be 
kept  in  the  same  compartment  of  a  loft  without 
crossing,  whether  they  be  of  the  same  or  of  different 
varieties,  when  once  they  are  thoroughly  mated. 

The  male  and  female  sit  on  the  eggs  in  turn,  and 
both  take  upon  them  the  work  of  feeding,  which 
consists  of  disgorging  into  the  mouth  of  the  young 
water  they  have  swallowed  and  partially  digested  or 
softened  food  from  their  own  crops. 

During  the  first  few  days  after  the  hatching  of  the 
young,  the  parents  supply  a  secretion  from  their  own 
crops,  known  popularly  as  "  pigeon's  milk,"  and  which 
chemical  analysis  has  shown  lately  to  be  a  term  not 
wholly  inappropriate. 

Diary  of  the  Pigeon. 

OWL  PIGEON. — Hatched  out  by  its  own  parents,  that 
also  fed  and  reared  it. 

"When  born,  the  eyes  seem  to  be  closed. 

2nd  day. — On  touching  the  back  of  the  young  one,  it 
moves  its  head  and  opens  its  eyes. 


248  ANIMAL   INTELLIGENCE 

3rd  day. — It  does  not  wink  when  its  eyes  are  touched, 
and  it  is  doubtful  if  it  sees. 

On  touching  the  bird  it  moves  more  than  it  did 
yesterday,  and  now  and  then  it  opens  its  mouth  a 
little. 

On  removing  this  If  inch  from  its  mate  nestling,  it 
shifts  lack  again,  guided  chiefly  by  the  warmth  from 
its  fellow,  I  take  it. 

It  is  placed  on  a  perch  about  1J  inch  wide.  It  does 
not  fall  off,  but  clings  to  it.  When  my  hand  is  held 
within  1  inch,  and  below  it,  the  bird  puts  down  its 
beak,  touches  my  hand,  and  scrambles  down  into  it. 

Every  time  I  use  the  dog-whistle  the  bird  moves  its 
head,  which  is  a  proof  of  hearing,  for  care  is  taken  to 
exclude  the  contact  of  the  blast  of  air  from  the  whistle. 

4:th  day. — It  will,  when  placed  on  the  perch,  as 
before,  put  its  head  down  a  great  distance,  but  does 
not  move  from  its  secure  position;  but  it  does  creep 
off  into  my  hand  under  the  same  circumstances  as 
yesterday. 

6th  day. — It  spreads  out  its  wings  when  disturbed  in 
any  way,  or  when  in  danger  of  falling  off  the  roost. 

There  is  no  evidence  that  the  bird  can  distinguish 
objects  by  the  eyes. 

The  winking  reflex  seems  to  be  wholly  wanting. 

A  solution  of  quinine  and  one  of  sugar  are  used  to 
test  taste,  but  with  no  clear  results.  When  blown  on, 
etc.,  it  utters  the  sounds  peculiar  to  young  pigeons. 

6th  day. — The  bird  can  see  at  a  distance  of  1  foot 
to-day,  as  evidenced  by  its  movements  when  the  hand 
is  passed  before  it. 

Holds  its  eyes  open  a  good  part  of  the  time  now. 

Under  the  application  to  the  tongue  of  solutions  of 
sugar  and  of  salt,  there  is  some  shaking  of  the  head, 
which  is  possibly  evidence  of  taste. 

7th  day. — Clear  evidence  of  vision  at  2  feet. 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS      249 

If  the  bird  is  placed  anywhere  out  of  its  nest,  it 
moves  about  in  a  restless  way. 

Sth  day. — Evidence  of  vision  at  4  feet. 

9th  day. — Can  now  see  objects  distant  6  feet. 

When  the  sides  of  the  beak  are  touched,  movements 
follow,  as  if  preparing  to  receive  food. 

10th  day. — Objects  now  seem  to  be  visible  to  the  bird 
at  any  part  of  its  own  compartment  of  the  loft,  i.e.  at 
9  to  10  feet. 

To-day,  for  the  first  time,  is  witnessed  undoubted 
defensive  snapping,  or  pecking  with  the  beak,  when  the 
hand  is  brought  near  it,  whether  in  its  nest  or  on  the 
floor  of  the  loft. 

Feathers  are  now  grown  out  far  enough  to  enable  one 
to  judge  of  their  colour. 

llth  day. — Growth  of  feathers  and  general  growth 
now  considerable. 

The  bird  can  now  walk  fairly  well. 

12th  day. — An  improvement  in  walking  and  feather- 
ing noticeable  since  yesterday. 

13th  day. — When  placed  on  the  floor  of  the  loft, 
within  a  few  inches  of  the  nest,  it  attempts  to  return 
to  the  nest  through  some  slats  that  fenced  it  in.  The 
nest  is  on  the  loft  floor,  and  is  covered  with  sawdust 
only  now,  though  at  first  there  was  also  a  little  straw. 

15th  day. — The  bird  can  now  get  back  to  its  nest 
when  2  feet  away,  and  also  succeeds  in  pushing  between 
the  slats. 

16th  day. — The  parents  have  somewhat  neglected  the 
feeding  of  their  offspring  to-day,  as  they  are  preparing 
to  sit  again. 

17th  day. — Better  fed  to-day.  When  either  parent 
enters  the  little  compartment  in  which  the  nest  is,  the 
young  one  scrambles  over  a  brick  that  surrounds  the 
nest  to  solicit  food. 

19th  day. — The  bird  is  now  well-feathered. 


250  ANIMAL   INTELLIGENCE 

When  placed  on  the  perch,  it  dings  more  firmly  than 
before,  and  in  a  different  fashion — in  fact,  more  like  a 
mature  pigeon. 

27th  day.  —  The  bird  is  practically  completely 
feathered. 

34th  day. — This  owl-pigeon  is  leading  a  compara- 
tively independent  existence,  and  is  out  of  its  nest  most 
of  the  time,  and  flying  about  the  loft,  though  occa- 
sionally fed  by  the  parents,  which  are  sitting  on 
another  nest  of  eggs  (two). 

Dragoon-Pigeon  hatched  out  and  fed  by  its  Parents. 

This  one  will  be  named  B,  to  distinguish  it  from 
another,  C. 

1st  day. — Eyes  unopened.  The  loudest  whistle  pro- 
duces no  effect.  The  bird  is  evidently  deaf. 

Blowing  on  it  causes  the  bird  to  move.  Putting  its 
beak  to  one's  mouth,  it  opens  the  former. 

When  placed  on  an  elevated  surface  it  does  not  creep 
or  fall  off,  though  it  moves  its  beak  about,  up,  down, 
etc. 

2nd  day. — Eesponds  to  the  dog-whistle  to-day. 

Eyes  open,  but  usually  kept  closed. 

3rd  day. — Eyes  more  completely  open,  but  lids  are 
usually  held  closed. 

5th  day. — Keeps  its  eyes  open  most  of  the  time. 

It  can  now  hold  up  its  head  pretty  well,  which  is  an 
impossibility  in  all  pigeons  just  after  birth. 

6th  day.—ThQ  eyes  are  kept  open  nearly  all  the 
time,  and  the  head  held  better — in  fact,  well. 

7th  day. — Progressing,  but  as  yet  does  not  peck  with 
the  beak  at  the  approach  of  an  intruder. 

9th  day. — Does  snap  with  the  beak  to-day,  but  does 
not  peck. 

Wth  day. — Pecks  to-day. 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS      251 

llth  day. — Feathers  shooting  from  the  skin,  but 
it  is  difficult  to  determine  the  exact  colour  yet. 

12th  day. — A  great  advance  in  growth  and  feathering 
in  twenty-four  hours. 

When  one  approaches,  it  pecks  hard,  and  uses  its 
wings  offensively  also. 

13th  day. — Colour  of  the  bird,  though  one  not 
naturally  easily  made  out,  is  now  clear. 

14th  day. — When  taken  from  the  small  compartment 
in  which  its  nest  is,  it  walks  back  promptly  and 
well. 

16th  day. — The  wings  are  well  covered  with  feathers. 

18th  day. — The  bird  does  not  peck  when  approached, 
but  shrinks. 

When  its  wings  are  drawn  out  it  pulls  them  in  again 
(as  did  the  owl-pigeon  on  the  22nd  day). 

2Qth  day. — Shrinks  to-day,  but  when  it  gets  back 
into  a  corner  of  its  nest  it  then  pecks  vigorously. 

24th  day. — Behaviour  similar  to  that  of  20th  and 
following  days. 

28th  day. — Out  of  the  nest,  looking  after  itself  to  a 
large  extent,  and  beginning  to  fly. 

34th  day. — The  iris  is  turning  red.  Hitherto  it  has 
been  of  a  dull,  ill-defined  colour. 

Another  Dragoon-Pigeon,  C,  of  different  Parentage. 

Though  the  diary  was  kept  in  the  same  way  as  the 
previous  one,  only  such  parts  of  it  will  be  given  here  as 
serve  to  bring  out  something  new  or  to  mark  individual 
differences. 

1st  day. — I  could  get  no  definite  reaction  to  tests  for 
taste  or  smell. 

Eyes  held  closed,  but  can  be  opened. 

4th  day.  —  Holds  its  head  somewhat  differently 
from  B. 


252  ANIMAL   INTELLIGENCE 

When  touched  turns  reflexly  towards  the  source  of 
the  stimulus. 

llth  day. — B  has,  in  twenty-four  hours,  been  the 
subject  of  a  phenomenal  growth  and  advance  in  physical 
development  generally,  so  that  it  now  seems  days  in 
advance  of  C. 

16th  day. — Very  pugnacious  when  approached. 

20th  day. — Strikes  vigorously  with  beak  and  wings. 
It  desists  when  placed  in  the  hand,  but  is  as  bad  as 
ever  when  put  down  again. 

22nd  day. — When  striking  at  me  it  got  sawdust  into 
its  mouth.  This  was  promptly  ejected,  however. 

28th  day. — Out  of  the  nest  and  flying  about  as  the 
other  one. 

Short-Faced  Tumblers,  D  and  E. 

Unless  otherwise  stated  the  notes  refer  to  D. 

1st  day. — The  eyes  are  fairly  open. 

The  opening  of  the  ear  is  very  small. 

2nd  day. — E  can  sit  up  fairly  when  it  does  not 
attempt  to  move,  but  if  it  does  it  sprawls  about  badly. 
The  head  seems  too  heavy,  and  its  neck  too  long, 
but  it  is  a  vigorous  specimen  of  this  somewhat  delicate 
variety. 

3rd  day. — When  the  wing  is  pricked  the  head  is 
dipped  downward  and  forward  somewhat  forcibly,  but 
not  towards  the  side  stimulated. 

6th  day. — The  head  and  neck  are  well  supported. 

The  eyes  are  still  held  open  only  part  of  the  time. 
The  parents  sit  over  the  birds  at  eventide,  though  very 
hot  in  the  loft. 

7th  day.— The  eyes  held  open  almost  all  the  time. 
Does  not  wink  even  when  the  eyes  are  touched. 

10^  day. — Much  growth  and  general  advancement 
evident. 

13th  day. — The  bird  pecks  when  I  put  my  hand  near 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS      253 

it.  The  growth  of  feathers  is  just  now  slight,  but  that 
of  the  body  rapid. 

14th  day — Still  more  inclined  to  peck,  etc.  Can  see 
growth  in  twenty-four  hours. 

15th  day. — Pecks  vigorously.  I  placed  it  on  one 
hand,  and  on  extending  the  other  towards  it  the  bird 
no  longer  pecks,  but  uses  voice,  beak,  etc.,  as  when  its 
parents  approach  to  feed  it. 

16th  day. — After  being  on  niy  hand  it  is  placed  back 
in  the  nest,  and  then  behaves  as  noted  above  on  the 
15th  day. 

17th  day. — It  is  now  growing  rapidly,  and  feathering 
fast,  so  that  the  colour  can  be  made  out.  Though 
quite  pugnacious  before,  when  taken  in  the  hand  it 
grows  quiet. 

19th  day. — The  bird  is  now  about  one -third  feathered. 
When  approached  it  uses  beak  and  wings  as  before, 
but  a  touch  seems  to  quiet  it. 

20th  day. — The  most  pugnacious  it  has  yet  been. 

22nd  day. — Still  more  pugnacious. 

24th  day. — Can  notice  a  distinct  advance  in  growth 
and  feathering  since  yesterday. 

26th  day. — Does  not  peck,  etc.,  to-day. 

27th  day. — Pecking  again. 

29th  day. — It  is  to-day  standing  on  a  brick  that  is 
beside  the  nest,  and  still  pecks. 

34th  day. — It  has  begun  its  independent  existence 
to-day,  and  is  flying  in  the  loft,  picking  up  grain, 
drinking  water,  etc. 

Its  iris  has  begun  to  take  on  the  final  characteristic 
"pearl"  colour. 

Remarks  on  the  Diaries  of  the  Pigeons.  • 

I  have  intentionally  made  records  on  different 
varieties  of  pigeons,  in  order  that  it  may  appear  to 


254  ANIMAL   INTELLIGENCE 

what  extent  they  resemble  and  differ  in  their  psychic 
and  physical  development. 

The  resemblances  are  more  readily  apparent  from 
the  perusal  of  records  than  the  differences,  as  many 
of  the  latter  are  of  a  kind  readily  enough  recognised 
by  an  experienced  observer,  but  not  easily  repre- 
sented by  verbal  descriptions. 

Special  pains  were  taken  to  ascertain  whether  the 
sense  of  support,  as  I  have  called  the  quality,  is  present 
in  birds  as  in  mammals. 

From  the  records  it  will  be  seen  that  it  is  well 
marked. 

The  young  bird,  placed  on  a  perch,  feels  about,  as 
it  were,  with  its  beak  for  some  solid  object,  and  not 
finding  it,  remains  where  it  is,  but  if  it  touches  anything 
resisting,  it  begins  to  move  towards  it. 

The  lower  an  animal  in  the  scale,  the  more  difficult 
it  seems  to  be  to  establish  the  presence  or  absence 
of  taste  and  smell  at  an  early  period,  if  I  may  judge 
from  those  of  our  domestic  animals  examined  by  me. 

I  am  unable  to  speak  with  certainty  as  to  whether 
pigeons  within  the  first  two  or  three  days  possess 
these  senses  or  not,  but  that  later  they  do,  I  have 
abundant  evidence. 

Tactile  sensibility,  and  the  ability  to  feel  pain,  are 
present  just  after  hatching,  as  my  records  show  that 
even  a  breath  of  air  gently  blown  on  the  young 
pigeon  causes  it  to  move. 

Additional  evidence  is  furnished  by  the  fact  that  a 
gentle  stroking  tends  to  quiet  the  bird. 

They  are  highly  sensitive  to  warmth  and  cold.  One 
can  quiet  the  most  disturbed  and  pugnacious  young 
one  by  gently  holding  the  warm  hand,  a  warm  cloth, 
etc.,  over  it. 

A  single  cold  day  is  liable  to  kill  young  pigeons  if 
their  parents  do  not  sit  over  them  constantly,  and  some- 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS      255 

times  even  when  they  do.  The  essential  vital  processes 
of  the  body  seem  to  be  deranged  by  cold. 

The  eyes,  though  shut  for  the  1st  day,  or  a  greater 
part  of  it,  can  be  opened  forcibly.  Nevertheless,  the 
slit  between  the  lids  is  at  first  very  small.  There 
is  no  doubt,  in  my  mind,  that  pigeons  are  blind  at  birth. 

The  records  show  that  they  can  soon  see,  and  so  early 
as  the  6th  day  can  distinguish  objects  at  the  distance 
of  1  foot. 

The  diaries  give  facts  which  will  enable  one  to  note 
the  rate  at  which  progress  in  this  direction  takes  place. 
By  about  the  10th  day  the  pigeon's  vision  for  objects 
anywhere  in  a  good-sized  loft  is  excellent. 

The  practical  absence  of  the  winking  reflex  in  young 
pigeons  is  noteworthy.  However,  it  is  not  easy  to 
cause  mature  birds  to  wink.  Moving  an  object  before 
its  head,  when  the  bird  is  held  in  the  hand,  causes 
movement  of  the  head  rather  than  winking. 

The  pupillary  reflex  is,  however,  soon  and  well 
established  in  birds. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  newly-hatched  pigeon  is 
deaf,  but  I  have  found  that  hearing  may  be  demon- 
strated on  the  2nd  day  in  some  cases. 

It  is  very  rare,  indeed,  that  pigeons  manifest  any 
signs  of  hostility,  etc.,  when  caught  up  in  the  hands. 

Birds  sitting  on  the  nest  will  sometimes,  however, 
peck  vigorously,  and  the  early  age  at  which  this  pecking 
or  snapping  of  the  beak  is  exhibited  seems  to  me  note- 
worthy. It  illustrates  how  purely  instinctive  the 
matter  is.  It  reminds  me  forcibly  of  the  hissing  of  the 
young  kitten,  the  more  so,  as  both  are  often  evidences 
of  surprise  rather  than  real  hostility. 

I  have  not  noticed  that  the  newly -born  pigeon  has 
voice,  but  after  a  few  days  (five  in  one  case)  the  bird 
"  squeaks  "  on  the  approach  of  the  parents,  and  especi- 
ally when  being  fed. 


256  ANIMAL   INTELLIGENCE 

Later,  the  voice  is  used  under  such  circumstances 
very  persistently. 

At  first  the  young  pigeon  can  scarcely  sit  up  in  any 
fashion,  but  in  a  few  hours  this  is  possible,  the  greatest 
difficulty  being  the  management  of  the  head  and  neck, 
which  often  fall  to  one  side  o'r  forward. 

The  gradual  progress  in  motor  power  and  co-ordination 
has  been  fully  noted  in  the  diaries. 

By-and-by  the  young  pigeon  recognises  its  own  nest 
when  near  it,  and  when  alarmed  will  retreat  to  it.  This 
is  a  matter  of  vision  largely,  though,  as  noted  in  the 
case  of  the  young  rabbits,  there  may  be  some  sort  of 
memory  of  distance  and  direction  through  tactile  and 
muscular  sensibility  or  otherwise.  The  subject  is 
obscure  and  worthy  of  more  study. 

So  close  is  the  relation  between  psychic  and  physical 
development,  that,  from  the  appearance  of  a  bird,  one 
who  has  observed  closely  could  be  able  to  predict  its 
behaviour;  and  this  seems  to  me  to  be  undoubted 
evidence  of  some  sort  of  correlation  between  the  physical 
and  the  psychic.  Now  and  then  it  will  happen  that 
from  one  pigeon  having  been  hatched  a  few  hours  in 
advance  of  the  other,  by  its  being  better  able  to  persist- 
ently thrust  forward  its  beak  for  food  to  the  parents,  it 
fairly  starves  the  other  one,  or,  if  not  completely,  to 
such  an  extent  that  the  difference  in  both  physical  and 
psychic  development  is  very  striking.  Again,  owing  to 
innate  vigour,  one  of  the  two  birds  in  the  nest  may 
make  a  sudden  advance,  as  was  noted  in  the  dog,  in 
which  case  the  same  result  as  just  referred  to  follows. 

There  are  many  signs  of  development  that  appear 
progressively,  such  as  changes  in  the  shape  of  the  skull 
and  beak,  the  method  of  holding  the  head,  the  relative 
proportion  of  parts,  etc. ;  but,  upon  the  whole,  the  rate 
of  feathering  is  a  fairly  good  guide  to  progress,  both 
physical  and  psychic. 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS      257 

Though  differences  between  the  mature  forms  of 
varieties  of  pigeons,  so  pronounced  as  regards  physical 
form,  less  so  psychically,  but  still  real  and  always 
present,  are  obvious  to  even  a  superficial  observer,  it  is 
interesting  to  note  that  even  at  an  early  date  such 
differences  do  appear.  To  illustrate  :  the  Dragoon  is  a 
bird  of  a  very  bold  appearance,  and  as  compared  with 
many  varieties,  is  somewhat  wild.  It  has  been  spoken 
of  as  the  "game  bird"  of  the  pigeon  family.  Such 
characteristics  are  manifest  in  the  young  before  they 
are  twenty  days  old.  They  peck  sooner  and  more 
vigorously  in  the  nest.  They  are  shyer  of  approach, 
etc. 

This  cannot  be  explained  by  a  more  rapid  develop- 
ment, for  several  other  varieties  mature  sooner  than 
they  do. 

Changes  in  the  colour  of  the  iris  are  as  significant, 
it  would  seem,  as  in  mammals. 


Some   Conclusions. 

Pigeons,  when  hatched,  and  for  the  first  day  or  two, 
keep  their  eyes  mostly  closed,  though  the  eyelids  are 
not  actually  united  at  birth. 

They  are  both  blind  and  deaf  when  they  first  emerge 
from  the  shell,  and  for  a  certain  period  afterwards. 

Perfection  of  hearing  and  vision  are  gradually  but 
rapidly  acquired. 

Taste  and  smell  cannot  be  demonstrated  at  birth,  but 
can  be  shown  to  exist  some  days  later. 

From  the  first  tactile  sensibility  and  capability  for 
painful  sensations  exist  in  exquisite  development. 

Pigeons,  even  more  than  mammals,  seem  to  be 
sensitive  to  heat  and  cold. 

ft 


258  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

The  sense  of  support  is  very  fully  developed  almost 
or  quite  from  the  beginning. 

Voice  is  present  in  a  few  days  after  hatching. 

Motor  co-ordinations  peculiar  to  birds,  and  the  power 
of  recognising  their  own  nest,  parents,  etc.,  are  gradually 
but  well  developed. 

Physical  changes  peculiar  to  this  group  of  birds,  and 
with  modifications  for  each  variety,  occur  at  fairly 
definite  periods,  are  closely  related  in  time,  and  are 
probably  in  some  way  bound  up  with  psychic  changes. 

The  Domestic  Fowl. 

This  bird  is  so  different  in  many  respects  from  the 
pigeon,  that  I  have  thought  it  better  to  keep  the  notes 
I  have  taken  apart. 

These  observations  were  made  on  pure-bred  Anda- 
lusian  chicks,  though  many  others  have  been  studied. 

Diary. 

Chick  A,  hatched. out  some  time  before  daylight,  is 
taken  from  the  nest  for  the  first  time,  and  tested  at 
4.30  P.M. 

It  pecks  three  times  in  succession  at  a  very  small 
speck  on  the  table,  and  touches  it  each  time.  It  strikes 
a  crumb  about  a  \  inch  in  diameter  two  or  three  times, 
and  then  swallows  it. 

Soon  after  it  pecks  at  a  smaller  crumb,  and  takes  it 
up  and  swallows  it  on  the  first  attempt. 

It  also  pecks  accurately  at  a  dark  spot  on  the  table. 

Chick  B,  of  about  the  same  age  (same  hatch),  picks 
up  bread-crumbs  and  particles  of  hard-boiled  yolk  of 
egg  without  missing. 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS      259 

It  also  pecks  at  its  own  foot  and  the  nail  of  one's 
hand. 

Chick  C,  hatched   only  a  little  while   since,   seems 
feeble,   creeps   rather   than   stands,  and  is  soon  tire 
out. 

All  those  tested  do,  without  doubt,  hear  as  well  as  see. 

They  easily  follow  the  hand  by  the  eyes  at  a  distance 
of  6  inches. 

Can  get  the  winking  reflexes  only  when  the  eyes  are 
all  but  touched. 

A  dark-coloured  box,  a  piece  of  cotton,  and  the  hand 
are  brought  near  the  chicks  in  succession.  The  hand 
alone  is  followed,  showing  that  it  is  the  ivarmth  that 
attracts. 

Solutions  of  salt  and  sugar,  applied  to  the  tongue, 
produce  no  decisive  signs  of  the  possession  of  taste. 

Two  pigeons — the  one  a  White  Pouter,  the  other  a 
Black  Owl — were  brought  near,  to  test  whether  the 
chicks  would  show  any  instinctive  fear.  They  mani- 
fested none  whatever;  on  the  contrary,  they  would 
nestle  under  them. 

The  birds  are  tested  again  about  twenty-two  hours 
later. 

Previous  to  the  first  testing,  they  had  not  been  from 
under  the  hen,  and  since  then  they  have  been  under 
her  and  nowhere  else. 

The  three  chicks  now  peck  well  at  all  that  is  put 
before  them,  as  oatmeal  grains,  canary  seed,  etc.  They 
peck  readily,  and  touch  the  objects  successfully.  The 
hardest  objects  are  not  always  taken  up  at  once,  how- 
ever. 

Some  scales  of  dried  lime-wash  from  the  wall  are 
placed  before  the  chicks.  In  one  case  a  chick  pecks  at 
a  scale  several  times,  then  gets  it  into  the  mouth,  but 
only  to  eject  it. 


260  ANIMAL   INTELLIGENCE 

In  another  case  it  is  not  distinctly  taken  into  the 
mouth  and  expelled,  but  is  simply  picked  up  and  at 
once  dropped. 

Water  is  presented  to  the  chicks.  They  peck  at 
some  drops  on  the  side  of  the  tin  containing  the  water. 

They  accidentally  get  the  beak  into  the  water,  when 
drinking  follows. 

They  do  not  spontaneously  put  in  the  beak  and  drink, 
either  before  this  accidental  result  or  after,  and  in  this 
matter  they  all  three  behave  alike. 

They  are  seen  to  scratch  the  head  with  a  foot. 

At  this  age  another  lot  of  six,  which  are  with  a 
different  mother,  do  drink  on  invitation  (clucking)  of 
the  mother. 

They  also  eat  rather  better  on  her  invitation  than 
without  it. 

They  run  to  the  mother  from  a  distance  of  4  feet. 

Five  hours  later. — The  mother  hen  drinks,  whereupon 
two  of  the  chicks  run  rapidly  from  a  distance  of  6 
inches  and  drink. 

One  of  them  wipes  its  beak  on  the  ground. 

The  hen  is  later  in  a  box,  and  cannot  be  seen  by  the 
chicks,  yet  they  move  towards  her,  i.e.  in  the  direction 
of  the  sound  she  makes. 

3rd  day,  2  P.M. — They  have  been  fed  a  couple  of  times 
before  to-day. 

They  are  now  given  very  small  pieces  of  meat,  with 
which  they  run  off,  peck  it  against  the  ground,  and  make 
off  from  each  other,  as  does  a  mature  hen.  One  even 
escapes  through  wire-netting  into  the  next "  run."  They 
are  now  out  of  doors  in  suitable  "  runs." 

One  is  seen  to  swallow  a  piece  too  large  with  no  more 
difficulty  than  a  mature  bird  apparently. 

One  of  the  chicks  begins  to  eat  lettuce,  on  which  the 
mother  hen  is  feeding. 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS      261 

A  pigeon  (the  same  one  used  before)  is  thrown  into 
the  run  where  the  hen  and  chicks  are.  It  flies  about  a 
little,  and  then  alights.  The  chicks  did  not  show  the 
least  fear,  etc.,  though  the  hen  attacks  the  pigeon, 
uttering  a  faint  sound  (danger  signal)  peculiar  to  fowls 
'when  a  bird,  as  a  hawk,  flies  over  them. 

9th  day. — Feathers  shooting  out  well.  Differences  in 
colour  very  marked. 

~L4:th  day. — Tried  the  Black  Owl  pigeon,  as  before. 
No  special  manifestations  on  the  part  of  the  chicks,  nor 
were  there  any  when  the  other  of  the  two  pigeons  before 
tried  was  suddenly  thrown  into  the  run  and  fluttered 
about. 


Remarks  on  the  Diary  of  the  Chicks. 

Previous  to  writing  the  notes  on  the  chicks  that  were 
the  subject  of  the  present  paper,  I  had  observed  fowls, 
young  and  old,  from  boyhood. 

The  brilliant  and  suggestive  observations  and  experi- 
ments of  Mr  Douglas  Spalding  had  fallen  under  my 
eye,  and  the  criticism  of  his  work  by  so  good  an 
observer  as  Prof.  Preyer,  determined  me  to  make 
some  special  independent  observations. 

I  had  the  impression  that  Spalding's  statements 
(Macmillan's  Magazine,  February  1873,  referred  to 
also  in  Eomanes'  "  Mental  Evolution  ")  were  somewhat 
overdone. 

My  own  observations  confirm  that  suspicion,  and 
justify  Preyer's  criticisms  ("  The  Mind  of  the  Child "), 
so  that  I  am  of  opinion  that  Spalding's  statements 
require  revision,  though  reliable  in  the  main. 

Different  chicks  behave  in  a  way  sufficiently  unlike 
to  warrant  differences  of  opinion  in  detail,  and  one 


262  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

should  be  on  his  guard  against  statements  of  a  too 
sweeping  character.  My  own  observations,  etc.,  on  the 
chick,  agree  pretty  well  with  those  of  Prof.  Lloyd 
Morgan  on  young  pheasants  ("Nature"  vol. xl.,p.  575).* 

It  will  be  seen  from  my  records  that  even  in  the 
same  clutch  of  chickens  there  are  marked  individual 
differences.  Thus  one  may  strike  a  crumb  accurately 
every  time  it  pecks,  and  pick  it  up  on  the  first  attempt ; 
another  misses,  or  shows  great  difficulty  in  getting  it 
into  the  mouth. 

But  few  remarks  are  called  for  in  the  diary,  in  view 
of  what  has  already  been  published  on  the  chick  by 
others. 

I  call  special  attention  to  the  failure  of  the  chicks  to 
be  frightened  at  any  time  within  my  records  (fourteen 
days)  by  the  pigeons  placed  amongst  them,  in  a  way 
that  one  would  have  supposed  might  have  called  forth 
any  instinctive  dread  of  a  rather  large  flying  bird. 

My  own  impression  is  that  chicks  do  not,  in  all  cases, 
show  fear  when  the  shadow  of  a  bird,  as  a  hawk,  passes 
over  them.  In  other  words,  instinct  is  not  the  hard 
and  fast  thing  it  is  sometimes  supposed  to  be. 

The  sense  of  support,  not  referred  to  by  other 
observers,  is  well  marked. 

The  chick  is  very  sensitive  to  cold,  though  I  think 
less  so  than  the  pigeon,  except  in,  perhaps,  the  case  of 
the  most  delicate  varieties,  as  pure-bred  bantams. 

Some  Conclusions  on  the  Chick.     The  Chick  and  the 
Pigeon,  etc.,  Compared. 

The  chick,  when  it  emerges  from  the  shell,  or  very 
soon  afterwards — certainly  within  a  few  hours — can  see, 

*  See  also  this  author's  "Habit  and  Instinct." 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS      263 

hear,  taste,  pick  up  and  swallow  food,  drink,  run  about, 
etc. 

Its  progress  is  so  rapid  that  in  a  few  days  it  can  lead 
an  independent  existence,  provided  it  be  protected 
against  cold,  wet,  etc. 

The  chick  stands  to  the  pigeon  in  physical  and 
psychic  development,  in  somewhat  the  same  relation  as 
the  rabbit  to  the  cavy  or  guinea-pig. 

In  all  these  cases,  when  full  maturity  is  reached,  the 
psychic  difference  is  not  great.  The  rabbit  and  the 
cavy  are  about  on  the  same  mental  plane,  and  so  are 
the  pigeon  and  the  fowl. 

They  all  illustrate  general  laws  of  development,  and 
the  study  of  these  creatures,  somewhat  low  in  the 
vertebrate  and  psychic  scale,  seems  to  me  to  throw 
much  light  on  the  problems  of  psychology,  viewed  not 
as  human  psychology  alone,  but  in  the  broadest  possible 
sense. 


THE  FUNCTIONAL  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE 
CEREBEAL  COKTEX  IN  DIFFERENT 
GROUPS  OF  ANIMALS. 

IN  connection  with  my  investigations  on  the  psychic 
development  of  young  animals,*  it  seemed  important, 
in  regard  to  the  question  of  physical  correlation,  to 
ascertain,  in  so  far  as  that  is  possible  by  experimental 
methods,  at  what  period  the  cortex  of  the  brain  becomes 
functionally  active.  Nothing,  to  my  knowledge,  has 
been  done  of  late  years  on  this  subject.  I  determined, 
therefore,  to  give  it  as  complete  an  investigation  as 
possible.  Realising  that  breadth  of  investigation  was 
important,  as  well  as  thoroughness,  the  experiments 
have  not  been  confined  to  one  or  two  groups  of  animals, 
but  cover  several.  This,  together  with  the  desire  to 
report  only  what  was  thoroughly  well  determined,  has 
extended  these  investigations  over  a  long  period  and 
involved  much  labour. 

Only  those  individual  animals  have  been  used  the 
exact  age  of  which  was  known,  and,  as  a  matter  of 
fact,  most  of  them  were  born  and  kept  under  my  own 
observation,  so  that  their  exact  age  and,  in  many  cases, 
their  breeding,  etc.,  were  known.  It  is  scarcely  neces- 
sary to  state  that  the  experiments  were  rendered 
painless. 


*  The  author  has  thought  it  well  to  introduce  here  just  so  much  of 
this  paper  as  will  make  the  following  one  somewhat  clearer.  Both 
appeared  in  the  first  instance  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  Canada,  in  1896. 

264 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  Y^UNG  ANIMALS      265 


General  Conclusions. 

In  the  dog,  cat,  rabbit  (and  in  so  far  as  the  writer's 
experiments  go,  in  the  rat  and  the  mouse)  neither  the 
brain  cortex  nor  the  underlying  white  matter  is  ex- 
citable by  electrical  stimulation  at  birth  or  for  some 
days  afterwards. 

The  cortex  is  usually  not  excitable  till  about  the  period 
when  the  eyes  open,  though  there  are  exceptions  to 
this  rule,  most  frequent  in  the  writer's  experience  in 
the  cat,  in  favour  of  an  earlier  date. 

The  white  matter  of  the  brain,  just  beneath  the 
cortex,  is  generally  excitable,  either  at  an  earlier  date 
than  the  cortex,  or  with  a  weaker  stimulus. 

The  reaction  for  the  limb  movements  is  obtainable 
invariably  somewhat  earlier  in  the  dog  and  the  cat, 
and  generally  so  in  the  rabbit,  than  those  for  the 
neck,  face,  etc. 

Localisation  for  the  cortex,  and  still  more  for  the 
white  matter,  is  at  first  ill-defined,  but  gradually, 
though  rapidly,  becomes  more  definite. 

In  the  cavy  (guinea-pig)  the  cortex  and  the  white 
matter  beneath  are  electrically  excitable  either  at  birth 
or  a  few  hours  afterwards,  and  perfection  of  reaction 
and  localisation  is  reached  in  a  few  days. 

Before  the  brain  cortex  responds  to  electrical  ex- 
citation, ablation  of  the  motor  area  (centres)  leads  to  no 
appreciable  interference  with  movements. 

The  younger  the  animal,  the  stronger  the  current 
required  to  produce  reaction  up  to  the  time  that  localisa- 
tion is  well  established,  i.e.  the  weakness  of  the  current 
required  to  cause  a  movement  is  an  indication  of  the 
degree  of  development  of  the  centre  in  question. 

Differences   for    breeds   and    individuals   exist  and 


266  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

constitute,  to  some  extent,  exceptions  to  the  above 
general  statements. 

In  the  above,  "  cortex  "  refers  to  the  grey  matter  in 
or  near  the  motor  area,  and  "white  matter"  to  the 
brain  substance  immediately  beneath. 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG 
ANIMALS  AND  ITS  PHYSICAL  (SO- 
MATIC) CORRELATION,  WITH  SPECIAL 
EEFERENCE  TO  THE  BRAIN. 

IT  seemed  to  me  important  that  psychic  and  somatic 
development  should  be  traced  contemporaneously,  so 
closely  are  they  related,  and  in  the  preceding  papers 
an  attempt  was  made  to  realise,  to  some  extent,  this 
ideal,  but  as  my  researches  on  the  brain  were  not 
completed  till  after  the  publication  of  these  investiga- 
tions, I  thought  it  better  not  to  attempt  to  utilise  them 
at  the  time.  The  investigation  bearing  on  the  functional 
development  of  the  cerebral  cortex,  with  special  regard 
to  the  motor  centres,  extends  to  all  the  groups  of 
animals  falling  under  my  studies  in  psychic  develop- 
ment, and  is  presented  in  the  present  volume  of  the 
Transactions,  so  that  it  is  now  possible  to  deal  with  the 
most  important  part  of  the  somatic  correlation,  viz. 
with  the  brain.  Naturally,  I  shall  draw  chiefly  from 
the  latter  paper,  and  from  those  on  psychic  development 
for  the  facts,  etc.,  on  which  reliance  will  be  placed  in 
attempting  further  progress,  in  regard  to  a  more  com- 
plete correlation  of  the  somatic  with  the  psychic. 

No  attempt  will  be  made  in  this  paper  to  discuss 
somatic  correlation  in  general,  as  that  subject  has  been 
treated  in  the  previous  papers. 

It  would  be  quite  correct  to  speak  of  the  relations  as 
anatomical  and  physiological  correlation,  but  as  move- 
ments are  so  bound  up  with  the  psychic  developments  of 

267 


268  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

animals,  I  think  it  will  be  more  instructive  to  consider 
the  subject  from  this  point  of  view,  and  in  doing  so,  the 
psychic  will  be  first  taken  into  account. 


L— THE  DOG. 

As  soon  as  a  puppy  is  born,  it  is  capable  of  cries, 
crawling,  and  sucking,  and  if  we  except  those  concerned 
with  the  vital  or  vegetative  functions,  these  about  cover 
all  its  possible  movements.  Up  to  the  period  when 
the  eyes  open  there  are  no  new  movements.  Every  one 
of  these  can  be  produced  experimentally  as  reflexes, 
and  the  question  is :  Are  they  naturally  of  this  char- 
acter ?  They  improve  from  day  to  day,  but  that  is  a 
feature  of  all  reflexes,  even  the  best  organised  (as 
swallowing),  though  it  has  hardly  been  adequately 
recognised. 

As  pointed  out  in  my  paper  on  the  functional 
development  of  the  cerebral  cortex,  the  latter  is 
absolutely  inexcitable  at  birth,  and  for  a  good  many 
days  after — indeed,  not  till  about  the  period  of  the 
opening  of  the  eyes — and  as  I  find  the  white  matter 
also  inexcitable  at  birth,  there  seems  to  be  no  other 
view  possible  of  these  movements  than  that  they  are 
reflex,  and  that  when  the  brain  is  called  into  action, 
parts  lower  than  the  cortex,  or  even  the  underlying 
medulla,  in  the  youngest  puppies,  must  function. 

Nevertheless,  the  animal  at  this  period  is  progressing, 
for  the  improvement  of  these  reflexes  implies  the  more 
perfect  organisation  of  a  neuro-rnuscular  mechanism, 
which  is  probably  availed  of  later  in  all  voluntary 
movements. 

In  adult  life  our  own  movements  are  often  carried 
out  with  a  perfection  in  proportion  to  the  degree  in 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS      269 

which  they  are  reflex,  or  according  to  the  facility  with 
which  higher  centres  use  lower  ones,  and  thus  economise 
psychic  energy. 

But  even  so  early  as  the  12th  to  the  15th  day 
new  movements  are  possible.  The  eyes  have  opened, 
the  ears  also,  and  both  eyes  and  ears  move,  rather 
reflexly  at  first  beyond  doubt,  but  very  soon  the  puppy 
moves  both  eyes  and  ears  voluntarily  at  times,  and 
still  later  he  fixes  the  eyes,  which  is  clearly  a  voluntary 
act. 

It  is  obvious  that  there  is  now  an  approach  to  walk- 
ing (instead  of  crawling).  There  are  tail  movements 
by  the  17th  day,  and  the  scratching  reflex  is  excitable. 
The  tail  movements  are,  at  this  period,  almost  certainly 
reflex.  Voluntary  movements  of  the  tail  do  not  seem 
to  be  possible  till  a  good  deal  later,  which  corresponds 
with  the  well-established  fact  that  the  cortical  centre 
for  tail  movements  is  not  developed  till  comparatively 
late. 

The  barking  of  the  19th  day  was  probably  a  reflex, 
much  simpler  than  such  as  results  later.  At  this  stage, 
puppies  often  bark  in  their  sleep,  not  a  common  occur- 
rence with  mature  dogs,  though  it  does  take  place  in 
dreaming.  By  the  23rd  day,  the  puppies  stand  with 
the  paws  on  the  edges  of  the  boards  constituting  the 
walls  of  their  pen.  This  act  may  be  reflex  at  times, 
possibly,  but  on  other  occasions  it  is  clearly  voluntary, 
and,  as  they  try  to  get  out,  we  are  left  in  no  doubt  that 
they  are  capable  of  willed  movements,  so  that  by  this 
time,  and  probably  before,  there  are  undoubted  volun- 
tary movements.  Corresponding  with  this  advance, 
I  have  found  before  the  20th  day  very  distinct  cortical 
localisation  for  the  limbs,  head,  and  face. 

Later  than  this,  improvement  in  reflexes  is  noticeable, 
but  still  more  the  rapid  development  of  older  and  the 


270  ANIMAL   INTELLIGENCE 

introduction  of  new  voluntary  movements,  involving 
more  and  more  complex  co-ordinations,  and  from  the 
psychic  aspect  the  manifest  possession  of  the  power  to 
use  the  machinery  of  the  nervous  system  and  muscles 
in  a  way  that  implies  the  existence  of  a  growing  in- 
telligence and  will,  and  the  careful  observation  of  a 
litter  of  puppies,  as  shown  in  my  paper  on  the  dog, 
will  impress  both  the  physiologist  and  the  psycho- 
logist with  the  rapidly-increasing  complexity  of  the 
life  of  a  young  dog,  a  complexity  in  which  reflex 
and  voluntary  movements,  instincts,  intelligence, 
emotions,  and  will  blend  in  varying,  but  ever 
augmenting,  degrees  of  intricacy,  with  all  of  which 
the  rapidly -developing  cortex  is  correlated,  and,  as 
I  have  endeavoured  to  show  in  earlier  papers,  there 
is  a  large  amount  of  somatic  correlation  over  and 
above  that  of  the  brain,  which  is  constant  as  to 
period  of  development,  but  with  variations  for  in- 
dividuals and  breeds. 

The  rapidity  of  psychic  development  of  a  terrier,  as 
compared  with  a  St  Bernard,  is  very  striking,  even 
within  the  first  six  weeks  of  life,  but  persists  to 
maturity ;  and  this,  I  have  found,  is  correlated  with  a 
decidedly  slower  functional  development  of  the  cerebral 
cortex  in  the  St  Bernard.  The  difference  in  the  motor 
co-ordinations  in  the  latter  and  the  terrier  is  so  striking 
within  the  first  six  or  eight  weeks  of  life  as  to  be 
ludicrous. 


II. — THE  CAT.    THE  DOG  AND  THE  CAT  COMPARED. 

NEARLY  all  that  has  been  said  of  the  reflexes  of  the 
dog  applies,  of  course,  to  the  cat.  There  are,  however, 
as  would  be  expected,  some  that  are  peculiar  to  the  cat 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS      271 

as  hissing,  which  manifests  itself  at  a  surprisingly  early 
date  in  the  kitten,  long  before  the  eyes  open. 

As  pointed  out  in  my  paper  on  the  cat,  there  is  a 
general  and  more  speedy  development  in  this  animal, 
as  compared  with  the  dog,  and  this  holds  even  for 
reflexes,  i.e.  they  reach  perfection  more  rapidly — in  fact, 
speaking  generally,  the  cat  develops  faster  than  even 
the  smaller  varieties  of  dogs,  as  terriers. 

By  the  16th  day  the  kitten,  specially  observed  by 
me,  licked  its  paw.  This,  under  the  circumstances,  can 
scarcely  be  regarded  as  a  pure  reflex ;  certainly,  dogs 
do  nothing  comparable  to  this  at  so  early  a  date.  It 
also  scratched  its  head  with  the  hind  leg  on  the  16th 
day.  Whether  this  be  regarded  as  voluntary  or  reflex, 
it  indicates  that  the  cat  is  in  advance  of  the  dog. 

Nothing  could  better  demonstrate  the  more  rapid 
psychic  development  of  the  cat  than  the  earlier  date 
at  which  it  steadily  follows  a  moving  object  with  the 
eyes,  or  fixes  them  for  some  time  on  a  stationary  one. 
In  fact,  the  kitten  does  this  at  a  time  when  it  is  still 
doubtful  if  the  puppy  sees  objects,  as  such,  distinctly. 

On  the  18th  day  the  kitten  climbed  up  the  side  of 
its  box  and  tried  to  get  out.  Nothing  comparable  to 
this  occurs  in  the  puppy  till  a  good  deal  later.  It  may 
be  said  that  the  history  of  the  cat  during  the  first  six 
weeks  of  its  life  contrasts  strongly  with  that  of  the  dog, 
as  regards  the  more  rapid  development  of  reflex  move- 
ments, the  earlier  appearance  of  voluntary  movements, 
and  the  speedier  perfection  attained  by  each,  together 
with  the  more  ready  and  complete  utilisation  of  ex- 
perience, the  early  intelligence,  the  strength  of  the  will, 
and  the  power  of  attention. 

All  this  is  correlated  with  that  earlier  development 
of  the  cerebral  cortex  which  I  have  shown  occurs  in 
the  cat,  and  there  is  probably  a  greater  difference  than 


272  ANIMAL   INTELLIGENCE 

can  be  made  manifest  by  our  crude  methods  of  experi- 
ment. 

A  very  marked  feature  in  the  psychic  development 
of  the  cat  is  the  early  appearance  of  the  play  instinct,* 
and  the  perfection  of  the  fore-limb  in  carrying  out  the 
movements  necessary  for  its  manifestations.  The  cat 
has  incomparably  better  use  of  the  fore-limb  at  an 
early  date.  I  have  recorded  observations  on  play 
(with  use  of  the  paws)  as  early  as  the  22nd  day,  and, 
as  is  well  known,  the  kitten  and  the  older  cat  have  a 
variety  and  perfection  of  movement  of  the  fore-limb 
never  acquired  by  the  dog.  This  is  distinctly  corre- 
lated with  brain  development,  for,  as  I  have  pointed 
out,  movements  of  the  fore-limb  are  in  the  cat  the  first 
that  can  be  induced  by  electrical  excitation  of  the 
cortex,  and  to  this  observation  my  experience  leads  me 
to  believe  there  are  practically  no  exceptions,  while 
the  case  is  very  different  for  the  dog.  Some  investi- 
gators have  expressed  the  opinion  that  the  fore-limb  is 
also  the  first  to  respond  in  the  dog,  but  this  does  not 
accord  entirely  with  my  experience.  It  has  occasion- 
ally been  so  in  the  puppies  on  which  I  experimented, 
but  in  the  large  majority  the  hind-leg  responded  first. 
Mongrels  and  pure-bred  animals  of  different  varieties 
were  used.  I  do  not  therefore  believe  that  the  state- 
ment that  the  fore-leg  in  the  dog  is  always  the  first  to 
respond  to  electrical  excitation,  can  any  longer  be  main- 
tained as  a  sound  generalisation,  but  it  may  be,  as  I 
have  suggested  in  my  paper  on  the  brain,  that  the 
truth  is,  that  sometimes  the  one  and  sometimes  the 
other  limb  is  the  first  to  react,  and  that  large  allowance 


*  The  whole  subject  of  play  in  animals  is  exhaustively  treated  by 
Dr  Karl  Grooa  in  his  "Die  Spiele  der  Thiere,"  Gustav  Fischer, 
Jena,  1896,  which  has  been  translated  into  English,  with  additional 
notes  by  the  German  author. 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS      273 

must  be  made  in  any  general  statement  for  individual 
and  breed  differences. 


III.-— THE  EABBIT. 

SUCH  a  creature  as  the  rabbit  contrasts  in  the  most 
marked  manner  with  the  dog  and  the  cat. 

A  rabbit  to  the  last  is  much  more  a  creature  of 
instincts  and  reflexes  pure  and  simple,  with  relatively 
but  little  intelligence,  all  of  which  is  in  harmony  with 
its  simple  modes  of  existence.  Its  food  is  in  the  wild 
state  usually  abundant,  and  as  its  escape  from  enemies 
is  accomplished  by  swiftness  in  flight,  or  by  taking 
refuge  in  its  burrow,  there  is  little  in  its  environment  to 
develop  intelligence.  With  the  Carnivora  it  is  quite 
otherwise.  They  obtain  their  food  by  cunning,  stealth, 
stratagem — it  may  be  concerted  action,  as  in  the  case 
of  wolves,  hyenas,  wild  dogs,  etc. 

The  ease  with  which  reflex  actions  are  excited  on  the 
very  first  day  of  existence  in  the  rabbit  is  striking,  and 
remains  a  very  distinct  peculiarity ;  and  on  the  same 
day  the  paws  were  used  to  wipe  away  an  offending 
substance  placed  in  the  mouth.  On  the  3rd  day 
scratching  of  a  surface  was  observed,  an  act  which  has 
no  small  part  in  the  burrowing  life  of  rabbits.  By  the 
15th  day  they  eat,  and  from  this  date  onwards  they 
progress  rapidly  to  perfection  of  reflex  and  voluntary 
action.  The  early  and  rapid  development  of  chewing 
or  eating  movements,  soon  associated  with  the  use  of 
the  paws  to  hold  food,  contrasts  in  the  most  decided 
way  with  the  slowness  of  the  development  of  good 
eating  movements  in  the  dog,  and  still  more  so  in  the 
cat.  The  rabbit's  cortex  is  inexcitable  till  about  the 
period  of  the  opening  of  the  eyes,  on  the  9th  to 


274  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

the  12th  day,  and  the  movements  in  which  the  head 
and  face  parts  are  concerned  can  be  induced  by 
electrical  stimulation  about  this  time.  It  is  to  be 
specially  noted  that  these  movements  can  be  produced 
in  the  rabbit,  experimentally,  almost  as  soon  as  those  of 
the  fore-limb — in  fact,  I  question  whether,  in  some 
cases  at  least,  they  are  not  excitable  earlier  and  with 
greater  facility,  i.e.  with  a  weaker  current.  With  the 
hind-legs  the  case  is  altogether  different — in  fact,  my 
investigations  would  lead  me  to  infer  that  the  hind-legs 
are  never  related  to  the  cortex  in  the  same  way  as  the 
fore-limbs.  In  no  case  have  I  been  able  to  establish 
to  my  satisfaction  the  existence  of  a  cortical  centre  for 
the  hind-legs  of  the  same  nature  (to  put  the  matter 
cautiously)  as  those  for  the  fore-limbs,  head,  face,  etc. 
The  relation  between  the  early,  and  all  but  simultaneous, 
development  of  the  cortical  centre  for  the  fore-limbs 
and  head  (and  face)  parts,  and  the  physiological  and 
psychic  manifestations  of  the  young  rabbit  afford  one 
of  the  most  beautiful  and  striking  illustrations  of  cor- 
relation known  to  me. 

IV.— -THE  CAVY,  OR  GUINEA-PIG. 

THE  cavy  comes  into  the  world  able  to  take  care  of 
itself.  It  can,  in  a  few  hours,  if  not  at  once,  run  about 
quite  well,  eat,  etc.  It  is  at  the  set-out  as  far  on  in  the 
path  of  development  as  a  rabbit  some  days  after  its 
eyes  are  open,  though  in  the  end  there  is  little  difference 
between  these  two  rodents  physically  or  otherwise. 

Corresponding  with  this  advanced  physiological  and 
psychic  development,  the  cortex  is,  as  I  have  shown, 
excitable  at  or  soon  after  birth,  so  that  here  again  there 
is  rendered  evident  by  experiment  a  close  correlation 
of  the  kind  considered  throughout  this  paper. 


THE  PSYCHIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  YOUNG  ANIMALS      275 


V,— BIRDS. 

ONE  learns  how  large  a  proportion  of  the  possibilities, 
physiological  if  not  psychic,  in  the  pigeon  are  not 
dependent  on  the  cerebral  cortex,  or  even  the  entire 
cerebrum,  by  ablation  of  the  latter.  Movements, 
though  not  spontaneous,  are  nearly  as  perfect  afterwards 
as  before,  and  much  light  is  thrown  on  the  nature  of 
reflexes. 

I  have,  after  careful  investigation,  been  unable  to 
find  any  motor  cortical  centres  whatever.  The  whole 
cerebral  cortex  appears  to  be  absolutely  inexcitable, 
except,  perhaps,  as  concerns  certain  eye  movements, 
and  as  for  these  a  strong  stimulus  is  required,  it  is 
doubtful  if  they  are  of  cortical  origin  in  the  usual  sense 
of  the  term. 

Nevertheless,  unless  we  deny  the  existence  of 
voluntary  movements  to  the  bird — an  extreme  position 
— we  are  landed  in  physiological  difficulties,  inasmuch 
as  it  has  been  assumed  by  nearly  all  physiologists  that 
the  cortex  is  essential  to  voluntary  movements.  The 
case  of  the  bird  seems  to  me  to  show  that  we  have 
much  to  learn  as  to  the  nervous  mechanism  of 
voluntary  movements,  notwithstanding  all  the  in- 
vestigation that  has  been  given  to  this  subject. 

Conclusions. 

In  the  dog  and  the  cat  there  is  a  period,  extending 
from  birth  to  about  the  time  of  the  opening  of  the  eyes, 
characterised  by  reflex  movements,  the  sway  of  instincts, 
and  the  absence  of  intelligence.  During  this  time  the 
cerebral  cortex  is  inexcitable  by  electrical  stimulation, 
so  that  the  psychic  condition  during  the  blind  period  is 
correlated  with  an  undeveloped  state  of  the  motor 


276  ANIMAL   INTELLIGENCE 

centres  of  the  cortex  of  the  cerebrum.  The  advance  in 
movements,  first  of  the  limbs,  and  later  of  the  head  and 
face  parts,  together  with  the  psychic  progress  associated 
with  this,  is  correlated  with  the  rapid  development  of 
the  cortical  centres  for  the  limbs  in  the  first  instance, 
and  later,  for  the  head  and  faqe  in  the  period  im- 
mediately following  the  blind  stage. 

This  is  more  rapid  and  more  pronounced  in  the  cat 
than  in  the  dog,  and  is  correlated  with  the  greater 
control  in  the  cat  over  the  fore-limbs  and  with  certain 
physiological  and  psychic  developments  characteristic 
of  the  cat. 

Similar  conclusions  apply  to  the  rabbit,  except  that 
the  difference  in  the  rapidity  of  development  of  head 
and  face  movements  is  correlated  with  an  earlier 
organisation  of  the  corresponding  cortical  centres,  and 
that  there  is  a  greater  difference  between  the  fore-limb 
and  the  hind-limb,  with  all  of  which  there  are  special 
psychic  correlations  bound  up  with  certain  peculiarities 
of  the  rabbit's  modes  of  life. 

The  vast  difference  in  physiological  and  psychic 
development  of  the  cavy  at  birth  is  correlated  with  the 
presence  of  cortical  cerebral  centres,  readily  excited  by 
artificial  stimuli,  centres  which  in  a  few  days  reach  a 
practically  perfect  state  of  development. 

The  psychic  manifestations  of  the  pigeon  and  the 
fowl  have  not  the  same  sort  of  cerebral  cortical 
correlates  as  the  animals  referred  to  above. 


PAET  IV. 

DISCUSSIONS   ON   INSTINCT. 
PROF.  C.  LLOYD  MORGAN  ON  INSTINCT. 

To  THE  EDITOR  OF  Science, — In  an  account  of  a  discus- 
sion on  "  Instinct,"  given  in  Science  of  14th  February, 
Prof.  Morgan  is  reported  thus  :  "  He  described  his  own 
interesting  experiments  with  chicks  and  ducklings,  and 
held  that  these  and  other  evidence  tend  to  show  that 
instincts  are  not  perfected  under  the  guidance  of 
intelligence,  and  then  inherited.  A  chick  will  peck 
instinctively  at  food,  but  must  be  taught  to  drink 
[Italics  mine].  Chicks  have  learned  to  drink  for 
countless  generations,  but  the  acquired  action  has  not 
become  instinctive." 

In  one  of  a  series  of  papers  now  in  the  Press  on 
"  The  Psychic  Development  of  Young  Animals  and  its 
Physical  Correlation,"  I  have  given  in  detail  an  account 
of  a  study  of  the  pigeon  and  the  chick.  It  so  happens 
that  this  very  question  of  drinking  by  chicks  has  been 
especially  noted,  and  I  find  a  record  of  one  observation 
to  the  effect  that  a  newly -hatched  chick,  pecking  at  the 
drops  on  rim  of  a  vessel  containing  water,  accidentally 
got  its  beak  into  the  liquid,  whereupon  it  at  once 
raised  its  head  and  drank  perfectly  well  in  the  usual 
fashion  for  fowls.  Was  this  by  teaching  or  by  instinct  ? 

Later,  the  chicks  seem  to  peck  and  drink,  sometimes 
on  seeing  the  mother  do  so.  The  act  seems  to  be,  in 

277 


278  ANIMAL   INTELLIGENCE 

such  a  case,  a  sort  of  ^imitation,  so  far  as  its  inception  is 
concerned.  But  will  any  one  contend  that  that  first 
act  of  drinking,  referred  to  above,  was  other  than 
instinctive  ?  Again,  when  a  chick  first  drinks,  on  its 
beak  being  put  into  water,  can  the  act  be  considered  as 
the  result  of  teaching  ?  Is  the  chick  so  intelligent  as 
to  carry  out  an  act  so  complex  in  such  a  perfect  way,  as 
it  does  on  the  very  first  occasion,  as  the  result  of 
"  teaching  "  ?  Surely  no  one  will  deny  that  sucking  is 
an  instinctive  act,  yet  a  newly  -  born  mammal  sucks 
only  when  its  lips  come  in  contact  with  the  teat.  Is 
not  the  case  very  similar  with  the  chick  ?  The  only 
difference  is,  that  the  chick  is  slower  to  recognise  water 
than  food,  but  as  soon  as  the  beak  touches  water  it 
drinks,  and  there  is  no  teaching  about  it.  Considering 
how  seldom  a  fowl  drinks,  yet  pecks  all  day  long  at 
particles  of  food,  it  is  not  surprising  that  the  chick  is 
slower  to  recognise  water  (drink)  than  food.  But  it  is 
one  thing  to  say  that  a  chick  learns  to  recognise  drink, 
and  another  to  affirm  that  it  learns  to  drink.  The  pro- 
cess of  drinking  is  quite  as  perfect  as  that  of  eating 
from  the  very  first,  if  not  more  so,  for  a  chick  at  first 
often  misses  what  it  pecks  at,  and  fails  to  convey  the 
object  into  its  mouth  in  other  cases,  though  it  may 
touch  it. 

The  view  that  instincts  are  perfect  from  the  first, 
and  undergo  no  development  from  experience,  I  believe, 
after  much  observation,  to  be  as  erroneous  as  it  is 
ancient. 

Instinct  is  never,  perhaps,  perfect  at  first,  and,  so 
far  as  I  can  see,  could  not  be  owing  to  general  im- 
perfect development  in  the  animal  of  motor  power,  the 
senses,  etc.  A  young  puppy  will  suck  anything  almost 
that  can  pass  between  his  lips,  as  a  chick  will  peck  at 
any  light  spot  or  object  if  small,  be  it  food  or  not.  My 


DISCUSSIONS   ON   INSTINCT  279 

own  records  abound  in  observations  that  amply  prove 
the  position  taken,  and  while  my  experiments  and 
observations  on  birds  are  in  the  main  in  accord  with 
those  of  Prof.  Morgan,  so  far  as  I  know  them,  I  cannot 
but  believe,  if  I  have  correctly  understood  his  views,  as 
reported  at  the  New  York  Meeting,  that  he  has  mis- 
conceived or  overstated  the  case  under  consideration. 

The  subject  of  heredity  is  too  large  to  enter  upon 
now.  I  may  say,  however,  that  my  researches  in  Com- 
parative Psychology,  and  especially  in  that  part  bearing 
perhaps  most  closely  on  the  question — psychogenesis, 
do  not  incline  me  to  believe  any  the  more  in  that 
biological  ignis  fatuus — Weismannism. 

WESLEY  MILLS. 
M'GiLL  UNIVERSITY,  MONTREAL. 


PROF.  MORGAN'S  observations  agree  with  those  of 
Prof.  Mills  and  others.  A  chick  swallows  water  in- 
stinctively, but  must  be  taught  to  drink  by  example 
or  by  accident.  The  chick  might  die  of  thirst  in  the 
presence  of  water,  as  the  sight  of  the  water  does  not 
call  up  the  movements  of  pecking  at  it,  as  do  food  and 
other  small  objects.  The  mother  hen  replaces  natural 
selection,  and  the  action,  though  continually  practised 
by  the  individual,  has  not  become  instinctive,  because 
it  has  not  a  selective  value.  Prof.  Morgan's  argument 
seems  to  be  satisfactory.  If  actions  which  occur  but 
once  in  the  lifetime  of  the  individual  (e.g.  the  nuptial 
flight  of  the  queen  bee)  are  thoroughly  instinctive,  and 
others  which  are  practised  continually  by  the  individual, 
do  not  become  instinctive  in  the  race,  we  can  scarcely 
regard  instincts  as  hereditary  habits,  but  must  rather 
attribute  them  to  variations,  fortuitous  or  due  to  un- 
known causes,  and  preserved  by  natural  selection. 

THE  WRITER  OF  THE  NOTE. 


280  ANIMAL   INTELLIGENCE 


INSTINCT. 

To  THE  EDITOR  OF  Science. — Some  remarks  appended 
to  my  letter,  published  in  Science  No.  XIL,  on  the  subject 
of  Prof.  Morgan's  views  on  "Instinct"  by  "  The  Writer  of 
the  Note,"  in  view  of  the  importance  of  the  subject,  are 
worthy  of  further  consideration. 

Before  drawing  conclusions  from  observations  on 
domestic  animals,  it  is  well  to  consider  similar  facts  in 
connection  with  their  wild  congeners,  especially  if  such 
conclusions  are  of  a  far-reaching  character,  and  it  cannot 
be  too  well  borne  in  mind  that  our  experiments  are  very 
clumsy  imitations  of  nature  in  a  large  proportion  of  cases. 

If  food  be  set  down  in  considerable  quantity  before 
newly -hatched  chicks,  and  in  a  vessel  similar  to  that  in 
which  water  is  usually  held,  they  will  be  relatively  slow 
to  recognise  and  eat  such  food,  but  in  a  wild  state  the 
congeners  of  the  domestic  fowl,  as  grouse,  pheasants,  etc. 
do  not  find  food  or  water  before  them  in  such  way. 
Their  food  is  distributed,  however,  much  more  like  the 
particles  we  scatter  before  the  chick  than  does  their 
water  supply  resemble  that  of  our  methods. 

A  young  grouse  would  naturally  get  its  water  from 
the  dew  on  herbage,  possibly  from  rain-water  that  had 
gathered  in  little  hollows  of  the  ground,  surface,  etc. 
And  when  the  birds  approach  a  stream,  the  surface  near 
is  moist  or  wet,  the  particles  it  would  naturally  peck  at 
would  be  found  up  to  and  beyond  the  very  margin  of 
the  water,  so  that  the  contact  of  .the  beak  with  water  in 
all  these  cases  would  be  inevitable,  and  drinking  would 
come  about  as  naturally  as  eating. 

When  "The  Writer  of  the  Note"  says:  "A  chick 
swallows  water  instinctively,  but  must  be  taught  to  drink 
by  example  or  accident,"  the  latter  term  evidently  having 


DISCUSSIONS  ON  INSTINCT  281 

reference  to  the  observation  specially  described  in  my 
letter,  he  plainly  either  misses  the  real  point  of  iny  ob- 
servation or  neatly  evades  it.  One  might  as  well  say 
a  puppy  learns  to  smell  by  accident,  for,  in  the  case 
in  question,  the  chick  did  not  swallow  water  merely, 
but  raised  its  head  like  an  old  fowl  and  drank  perfectly 
well  on  the  very  first  occasion  that  its  beak  had  ever 
been  immersed  in  water  (as  a  puppy  sucks  when  its  lips 
first  come  in  contact  with  a  teat,  etc.)  ;  and  this  I  take 
it  is  what  happens  in  nature.  The  young  grouse  in  the 
forest,  or  even  the  chick  on  a  grass  plot  or  in  a  garden, 
would  come  in  contact  with  water  without  any  assistance 
from  the  mother  bird. 

The  assumption  that  "  the  chick  might  die  of  thirst  in 
the  presence  of  water,  as  the  sight  of  water  does  not 
call  up  the  movements  of  pecking  at  it,  as  do  food  and 
other  small  objects,"  is  purely  gratuitous.  It  is  not 
primarily  so  much  the  sight,  but  rather  the  touch  of 
water — inevitable,  as  I  have  tried  to  show,  in  a  wild 
state — that  in  the  very  first  instance  leads  to  drinking, 
though  the  bird  would  also  peck  at  shining  dewdrops, 
as  my  chick  did  at  the  drops  on  the  rim  of  a  vessel 
containing  water.  With  a  fair  chance,  and  plenty  of 
water  about,  in  a  condition  at  all  resembling  that  in 
nature,  there  is  no  such  thing  for  a  vigorous,  hardy 
chick  as  death  from  thirst. 

That  habits  may  be  hereditary  in  dogs  I  have  many 
times  observed  in  my  own  kennel,  during  the  last  eight 
years,  and,  without  expressing  any  opinion  as  to  the 
origin  of  instincts  now,  I  can  see  no  impossibility  in 
their  dating  back  to  habits. 

A  doctrine  which  asserts  that  eating  is  instinctive, 
but  that  drinking  is  not,  is,  to  my  mind,  one  to  marvel 
at,  and  is  a  poor  foundation  for  theories  of  evolution  or 
heredity. 


282  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

Comparative  Psychology  will,  I  fear,  continue  to  suffer 
till  those  who  assume  to  deal  with  it  authoritatively 
spend  more  time  among  animals  and  less  in  their  studies. 
A  few  observations  or  experiments  do  not  give  them 
insight  into  the  psychic  nature  of  animals,  and  it  were 
well,  I  venture  to  think,  if  the  qualifications  of  the 
comparative  psychologist,  as  set  forth  by  Dr  Groos,  in 
the  preface  to  his  admirable  work,  "Die  Spiele  der 
Thiere,"  were  thoroughly  known  and  believed  in  by  all 
psychologists.  WESLEY  MILLS. 

M'GiLL  UNIVERSITY,  MONTREAL. 


NEWLY-HATCHED  CHICKENS  INSTINCTIVELY  DRINK. 

To  THE  EDITOR  OF  Science. — In  the  issue  of  6th 
March  1896,  appears  an  excellent  and  accurate  note  by 
Wesley  Mills,  calling  attention  to  an  error  of  state- 
ment made  by  Prof.  Morgan  in  Science  (issue  of  14th 
February  1896). 

With  due  deference  to  "  The  Writer  of  the  Note,"  who 
follows  Mr  Mills,  and  who  says  that  Morgan's  argu- 
ment is  satisfactory — that  "  a  chick  might  die  of  thirst 
in  the  presence  of  water  " — I  desire  to  say  that  this  is 
not  my  understanding  of  the  case.  I  have  been,  during 
the  last  thirty-five  years,  a  breeder  of  fowls  as  an 
amateur,  and  I  have  given  the  hatching  and  rearing  of 
chickens  close  and  continued  attention.  I  have  re- 
peatedly placed  a  shallow  water-dish  before  the  bars  of 
the  coop  in  which  a  newly -hatched  brood  had  been  placed 
the  day  previous,  taken  there  directly  from  the  hatching 
nest,  and  in  which  they  never  had  food  or  water 


DISCUSSIONS  ON  INSTINCT  283 

offered.  Kepeatedly,  before  these  small  chickens,  not 
twenty-four  hours  from  the  shell,  and  before  they  had 
been  offered  food,  I  have  filled  their  shallow  water-tray, 
and  observed  them  toddle  out  to  it,  peck  at  it,  or  at 
once  thrust  their  bills  into  it,  to  drink  at  once  T)y  up- 
lifting their  heads,  as  all  adult  fowls  do,  the  hen  never 
putting  her  head  out  from  the  bars,  or  showing  these 
young  chicks  how  to  do  what  they  instinctively  did. 
I  have  made  the  same  experiments  repeatedly  with 
food,  with  the  same  result,  i.e.  that  chicks  instinctively 
drink  and  eat  without  any  example  being  set  by  the 
mother  hen.  HENKY  W.  ELLIOTT. 

LAKEWOOD,  OHIO,  llth  March  1896. 


THE  INSTINCT  OF  PECKING. 

IN  discussing  Prof.  Morgan's  lecture  on  "  Instinct,"  it 
has  several  times  been  stated  that  chickens  pecked 
instinctively,  but  had  to  be  taught  to  drink.  There 
was  a  note  in  Nature  last  year,  concerning  some  species 
of  Asiatic  pheasants — it  may  possibly  have  been  the 
Jungle  Fowl — to  the  effect  that  the  young  did  not 
peck  instinctively,  and  did  not  offer  to  take  food 
spread  before  them.  The  natives  seem  aware  of  this 
peculiarity,  and  in  the  particular  instance  recorded,  a 
native  induced  the  young  birds  to  peck  by  tapping  on 
the  ground  with  a  pencil  near  the  food.  They  seemed 
attracted  by  the  sound  and  movement,  and  were  thus 
induced  to  peck  at  the  food.  F.  A.  LUCAS. 

«  SCIENCE,"  13th  March  1896. 


284  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

INSTINCT. 

To  THE  EDITOR  OF  Science. — Having  read  with  con- 
siderable interest  the  discussions  under  "  Instinct,"  and 
having  noticed  the  different  opinions  expressed  con- 
cerning the  eating  and  drinking  of  the  chick,  I  thought 
that  perhaps  my  personal  experiments  in  regard  to  the 
matter  might  be  of  interest. 

About  eight  years  ago  I  was  desirous  of  studying  the 
chick  before  and  after  hatching,  and  for  this  purpose  I 
placed  about  three  hundred  eggs  in  an  incubator.  I 
shall  confine  myself  to  those  that  were  allowed  to  hatch. 

Those  that  hatched  were  divided  into  two  groups, — 
an  unhealthy  and  a  healthy  group.  Those  in  the  first 
group  were  fed  and  given  water  until  they  became 
strong  enough  to  care  for  themselves.  Those  in  the 
second  group  had  food  and  water  placed  so  that  they 
could  get  them,  but  they  were  not  fed  nor  given  water, 
nor  were  they  taught  how  to  secure  food  and  water. 
No  tapping  on  the  dish  or  on  the  floor,  and  no  putting 
of  the  bill  in  the  food  or  water  was  practised.  They 
were  left  entirely  to  themselves. 

By  watching  these  chicks,  I  noticed  that  they  would 
occasionally  run  over  their  food  and  water,  and  fre- 
quently they  stumbled  in  them.  If  the  beak  became 
wet,  up  would  go  the  head,  and  the  water  was  swallowed. 
If  food  adhered  to  the  beak,  some  would  get  on  the 
tongue,  and  it  would  be  swallowed.  In  time  they 
seemed  to  recognise  that  the  food  and  water  were 
palatable  by  repeatedly  stumbling  in  them  and  getting 
them  on  the  beak,  and  finally,  they  learned  how  to 
secure  them,  i.e.  how  to  pick  them  up.  I  noticed  that 
at  first  they  did  not  know  how  to  pick  up,  but,  after 
repeatedly  trying,  they  learned  how.  The  majority  of 
these  chicks  lived  and  developed. 


DISCUSSIONS  ON  INSTINCT  285 

Now,  if  we  consider  the  attempt  to  pick  up,  from 
observation  I  conclude  that  it  was  by  instinct ;  but  if 
we  consider  the  picking-up,  I  conclude  that  it  was  an 
acquired  characteristic. 

In  conclusion,  I  might  say  that  at  the  end  of  the 
3rd  day  all  of  the  chicks — about  fifty — instinctively 
attempted  to  pick  up,  and  that  at  the  end  of  the  5th 
day  they  were  able  to  pick  up  and  place  the  food  or 
water  so  that  it  could  be  swallowed. 

J.  C.  HARTZELL,  JR. 

ORANGEBURG,  S.C.,  25th  March  1896. 


To  THE  EDITOR  OF  Science. — Prof.  Lucas  seems  to  me 
to  have  advanced  this  discussion  on  "  Instinct "  by  his 
reference  to  a  letter  in  Nature,  which  appeared  in  vol. 
lii.  p.  30.  According  to  the  writer,  it  is  customary 
for  the  Asamese  natives  to  "  teach  "  the  young  Jungle 
Fowls  to  peck. 

If  this  be  true,  what  then  becomes  of  Prof.  Morgan's 
distinction  ? 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  if  one  observes  a  good  many 
chicks,  he  will  find  that  a  large  proportion  of  the  birds 
never  peck  without  suggestion  (the  term  "  teach  "  seems 
objectionable)  from  the  hen  or  some  substitute.  The 
chief  value  of  such  facts  grows  out  of  their  showing 
that  instincts  are  never  perfect,  and  never  of  that  type 
once  believed  in — the  unalterable,  inevitable,  and  un- 
varying— like  the  rising  and  setting  of  the  sun;  and 
for  such  rigid  notions  the  reports  of  some  scientists 
are  in  part  responsible.  It  sometimes  happened  that 
experimenters  in  biology,  etc.,  omit  the  exceptions  and 
report  only  "  good  experiments,"  so  that  a  false  view  of 
the  case  must  necessarily  arise.  Prof.  Baldwin  seems 
to  adopt  Prof.  Morgan's  views,  for  lie  refers  to  the 


286  ANIMAL   INTELLIGENCE 

observation  that  the  chicks  drank  "  only  after  they  had 
the  taste  of  water  by  accident,  or  by  imitating  the  old 
fowl."  Granted — but  they  also  peck  only  after  seeing 
small  objects  under  certain  conditions,  and  there  is  no 
instinct  that  does  not  require  some  stimulus  in  the 
environment  to  bring  it  into  action.  The  mechanism 
is  ready,  but  it  is  useless  without  this  stimulus. 

If  one  knew  but  of  those  domestic  chicks,  or  those 
jungle  chicks,  that  peck  only  on  seeing  this  act,  one 
might  speak  of  a  certain  imperfection  in  the  instinct 
of  pecking,  as,  if  you  will,  in  drinking;  but  what  I 
must  again  object  to,  is  drawing  radically  different 
conclusions  as  to  the  nature  of  eating  and  drinking 
by  chicks,  and  even  building  theories  of  evolution  on 
them. 

As  I  understand  Prof.  Cope  is  to  reply  to  Prof. 
Baldwin's  views  on  "Consciousness  and  Evolution," 
through  the  medium  of  the  American  Naturalist,  I 
will  only  remark  regarding  his  discussion  in  Science, 
p.  438,  on  "  Heredity  and  Instinct,"  that,  while  I  find 
his  views  very  interesting,  as  illustrations  of  natural 
selection,  the  Lamarckian  principle,  the  influence  of 
environment,  etc.,  they  seem,  in  the  main,  to  fall  within 
the  range  of  principles  already  recognised  by  the  Dar- 
winians and  Lamarckians,  though  perhaps  not  ade- 
quately. But  I  fail  to  see  that  a  single  safe  step  can 
be  taken  in  explaining  evolution  either  in  biology  or 
psychology,  if  the  effects  of  the  environment  and  of 
use  be  ignored ;  indeed,  Prof.  Baldwin's  very  facts  and 
illustrations  are,  to  my  mind,  only  comprehensible  by 
the  introduction  of  those  factors ;  and  why  there  should 
be  such  anxiety  on  the  part  of  many  to  get  rid  of 
factors  so  obvious,  and  to  substitute  for  them  the  bio- 
logical fatalism  and  reasoning  in  a  circle  of  Weismann, 
is  a  puzzle  to  nie. 


DISCUSSIONS   ON   INSTINCT  287 

I  trust  Prof.  Baldwin  will  not  insist  on  coining  many 
new  terms,  or  favour  their  adoption,  as  far  as  evolution 
is  concerned.  "Social  heredity"  is  about  equivalent, 
is  it  not,  to  social  environment,  and  the  entire  environ- 
ment is  one  into  which,  as  a  rule,  the  animal  is  born, 
so  why  speak  of  "  social  heredity "  ?  Technicalities 
have  their  advantages,  but  they  often  conduce  to 
mental  myopia,  and  hamper  the  comprehension  and 
progress  of  truth  by  binding  it  up  in  packages,  so  to 
speak — packages  which  all  cannot  readily  undo. 

WESLEY  MILLS. 
M'GiLL  UNIVERSITY. 


IN  Prof.  Mills'  communications  on  "  Instinct,"  he 
seems  to  have  missed  the  point  in  the  case  of  each  of 
those  criticised — "The  Writer  of  the  Note," Prof.  Morgan, 
and  myself.  In  the  case  of  the  fowl's  drinking,  it  is 
not  the  mere  fact  that  drinking  and  eating  may  differ 
in  the  degree  to  which  the  performance  is  congenital ; 
the  reports  seem  to  show  that  this  varies  in  different 
fowl,  but  that  instincts  (in  this  case  drinking)  may  be 
only  half  congenital,  and  may  have  to  be  supplemented 
by  imitation,  accident,  intelligence,  instruction,  etc.,  in 
order  to  act,  even  when  the  actions  are  so  necessary  to 
life  that  the  creature  would  certainly  die  if  the  function 
were  not  performed.  That  is  the  interesting  point. 

Then,  in  criticising  me,  Prof.  Mills  accuses  me  of 
ignoring  the  "  effects  of  environment  and  of  use."  On 
the  contrary,  these  are  just  the  facts  which  I  appeal  to. 
By  adaptations  to  the  environment  and  by  use,  the 
creature  manages  to  keep  alive;  other  creatures  die 
off;  so  certain  determinate  directions  of  congenital 
variation  are  singled  out  and  inherited.  Thus  phylo- 
genetic  variations  become  determinate,  just  through 


288  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

these  ontogenetic  adaptations.  This  takes  the  place 
of  the  Lamarckian  factor.  Lamarckism  is  an  "  obvious  " 
resort  in  all  cases,  of  course,  but  it  seems  to  me  so  easy, 
that  in  many  cases  it  is  shallow  in  the  extreme. 

But  my  view  is  very  far  from  being  Weismannism. 
I  reach  determinate  variations  by  means  of  new 
functions  or  adaptions  which  keep  certain  animals 
alive  to  propagate.  It  is  really  a  new  theory,  as  Prof. 
Osborn,  who  has  reached  about  the  same  point  of  view, 
declares.  This  is  also  just  the  value  which  Prof. 
Morgan  attaches  to  his  observations. 

J.  MARK  BALDWIN. 

PRINCETON,  17 th  April  1896. 


To  THE  EDITOR  OF  Science — It  seems  to  me  that  it 
would  be  well  to  keep  the  issue  with  which  this 
discussion  started  in  view,  and  then  the  direction  in 
which  the  truth  lies  will  be  clearer.  Nothing  could 
be  more  explicit  than  the  statement  by  "  The  Writer 
of  the  Note "  in  Science  of  14th  February,  which  was 
this :  "  A  chick  will  peck  instinctively,  out  must  be 
taught  to-  drink.  Chicks  have  learned  to  drink  for 
countless  generations,  but  the  acquired  action  has  not 
become  instinctive." 

In  other  words,  the  view  that  eating  is  instinctive, 
and  drinking  is  not,  was  that  taught  by  Prof.  Morgan 
and  endorsed  by  "  The  Writer  of  the  Note  "  in  a  sub- 
sequent communication.  Feeling  that  an  important 
truth  was  being  imperilled,  I  advanced  facts  to  show 
that  such  a  view  was  untenable.  This  was  followed 
by  the  recital  of  additional  facts  by  others,  so  that'  it 
was  plain  to  myself — more  so  than  ever — that  such  a 
theory  as  that  first  advanced  was  not  sound.  I  was 
aware  that  all  three  of  the  writers  supporting  this  view 


DISCUSSIONS  ON  INSTINCT  289 

were  in  accord,  constituting  a  sort  of  trinity  in  unity ; 
there  was,  nevertheless,  a  great  lack  of  harmony  which 
seemed  to  be  owing  to  the  somewhat  important  defect 
that  their  views  were  not  endorsed  by  Nature. 

Now,  to  my  surprise,  Prof.  Baldwin  claims  that  I 
have  missed  the  real  point,  which  he  takes  to  be  that 
an  instinct  may  be  only  "half  congenital,"  and  cites 
this  drinking  of  chicks;  but,  according  to  the  above 
quotation,  drinking  is  not  instinctive  at  all,  so  that  it 
looks  as  if  the  shoe  was  on  the  other  foot. 

Inl894,in  a  paper  read  before  theEoyal  Society  Canada, 
on  "  The  Psychic  Development  of  Young  Animals,"  pub- 
lished in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Society  for  1895,  and 
a  copy  of  which  was  forwarded  to  Prof.  Baldwin,  I 
emphasised  the  conception  that  instinctive  acts  are 
never  perfect  at  first,  or,  as  Prof.  Baldwin  would  prefer 
to  say,  are  only  partially  congenital,  though  whether 
such  an  expression  as  "  half  congenital "  is  a  valuable 
addition  to  the  English  language  I  doubt.  Now,  it 
would  be  strange  that  I  should  alter  my  own  views 
without  noting  the  change,  and  miss  the  point  in  a 
matter  which  I  was,  I  think,  the  first  to  emphasise; 
in  fact,  I  have,  in  this  very  correspondence  in  Science, 
urged  this  view — the  imperfection  of  instincts.  If 
Prof.  Baldwin,  and  those  he  professes  to  interpret,  will 
grant  that  eating  and  drinking  in  chicks  are  instinctive ; 
that  both  alike  are  imperfect  at  birth ;  that,  congenitally, 
the  chick  is  in  the  same  condition  to  all  intents  and 
purposes  as  regards  eating  and  drinking,  he  will,  I 
believe,  be  in  accord  with  the  facts,  and  we  shall  all 
agree  that  the  much-overlooked  imperfection  of  instincts 
is  well  illustrated  by  the  subjects  under  discussion,  but, 
I  should  like  to  add,  universal  in  its  application,  though 
in  varying  degree,  the  imperfection  being  in  some  cases 
not  very  obvious  to  our  inadequate  observation. 

T 


290  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

But  in  discussing  evolution  I  feel  that  we  are  on  a 
different  plane.  Here  the  appeal  to  facts  is  of  a  much 
less  decisive  character.* 

I  have  been  trying,  since  reading  Prof.  Baldwin's 
letter  in  Science  of  1st  May,  in  reply  to  my  own,  to 
ascertain  his  real  views  in  regard  to  evolution,  and 
have  some  hesitation  in  deciding  whether  I  really  grasp 
his  meaning  or  not.  However,  a  few  concrete  cases 
may  make  matters  plainer.  A  and  B  are,  let  us 
suppose,  two  individuals  that  survive  because  they  can 
and  do  adapt  to  the  environment ;  X  and  Y  die 
because  they  cannot ;  or,  in  Prof.  Baldwin's  terminology, 
A  and  B  adapt  to  their  "  social  heredity  "  constituting 
"  organic  selection,"  which  is  ontogenetic,  or  affects  the 
individual.  But  the  survival  of  individuals  specially 
adapted  affects  the  race  or  phyllum.  But  surely  an 
individual  adapts  to  an  environment  ("  social  heredity  ") 
because  of  what  he  is  congenitally.  In  the  language 
of  evolutionists,  this  is  survival  of  the  fittest,  or  natural 
selection,  though  Prof.  Baldwin  seems  to  think  he  has 
introduced  a  new  factor  in  his  "  social  heredity."  The 
name  is  new,  and  to  my  mind  objectionable,  as  there  is 
no  real  heredity ;  the  idea  is  not. 

Ordinary  people  express  themselves  by  saying  that 
we  become  what  we  are  because  of  "  education,"  "  cir- 
cumstances," etc.  We  say :  "  The  man  is  the  product 
of  his  age." 

People  tend    to   believe    too   much    in  the  power 


*  Although  the  bearing  on  evolution  of  the  observations  under 
dicusssion  was  not  the  principal  theme  of  these  communications,  it 
may  be  stated  that,  under  "Determinate  Evolution,"  Prof.  Baldwin 
has  elaborated  his  views  in  their  most  mature  form  in  the  July 
(1897)  number  of  the  Psych.  Rev.,  in  which  article  also,  reference 
is  made  to  the  opinions  of  others  holding  views  similar  to  his  own. 
Prof.  Morgan  has  discussed  the  subject  fully  in  his  "Habit  and 
Instinct."— W.  M. 


DISCUSSIONS  ON  INSTINCT  291 

of  education,  circumstances,  etc.,  and  too  little  in 
heredity;  hence  all  sorts  of  cures  for  deep-rooted 
evils  are  ever  welcome.  But  we  find  that  the  changes 
wrought  by  "  social  heredity  "  are  very  much  on  the 
surface,  and,  in  consequence,  there  may  be  but  little 
outcome  from  these  effects — possibly  none  in  some 
cases — in  heredity,  as  ordinarily  understood,  which  does 
not,  however,  contravene  the  Lamarckian  or  any 
other  well-recognised  principle  of  heredity  or  evolu- 
tion. To  return  to  the  concrete :  A  and  B  have 
offspring,  differing  slightly  from  themselves;  the 
"  social  heredity "  has  had  little  effect,  therefore,  on 
the  race  in  the  case  of  the  lower  animals,  much  less 
than  in  the  case  of  man,  possibly,  and  if  the  offspring 
C  and  D  be  placed  in  widely  different  environments, 
the  slight  extent  to  which  they  have  varied  (con- 
genitally)  will  be  all  the  more  evident. 

A  Lamarckian  explains  these  variations,  such  as 
they  may  be,  by  the  influence  of  the  use  and  disuse 
of  parts,  and  evolutionists  of  other  schools  in  other 
ways.  Prof.  Baldwin  misapprehends,  I  take  it,  the 
sense  in  which  I  employed  the  term  "use"  in  the 
phrase  in  which  he  quotes  from  my  last  letter.  The 
Lamarckian  sense  was  that  intended. 

I  must  repeat  that,  after  reading  a  good  deal  of  what 
Prof.  Baldwin  has  written  on  this  aspect  of  evolution,  it 
still  seems  to  me  that  while  he  has,  with  new  terminology, 
set  forth  old  views  in  a  new  dress,  that  there  is  really 
no  new  principle  or  factor  involved.  I  do  not,  of  course, 
consider  such  writing  without  special  value,  though 
it  may  sometimes  be  provokingly  difficult  to  under- 
stand from  the  new  technicalities  employed,  for  the 
relative  parts  played  by  heredity  and  environment 
in  the  make-up  of  each  individual  is  an  interesting 
and  practically  very  important  problem. 


292  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

If  I  have  failed  to  understand  Prof.  Baldwin  fully, 
and  so  to  appreciate  his  views  at  their  full  value  on 
the  score  of  originality,  I  regret  it.  However,  it  is 
likely  that  others  are  in  the  same  case,  and  I  venture 
to  suggest  that  the  remedy  for  our  denseness,  if  such 
it  be,  is  to  be  found  in  a  specific  and  concrete  treat- 
ment of  the  subject.  WESLEY  MILLS. 

M'GiLL  UNIVERSITY,  MONTREAL. 


THE  HABIT  OF  DRINKING  IN  YOUNG  BIRDS.* 

To  THE  EDITOR  OF  Science. — In  response  to  a  request 
that  has  just  reached  me,  may  I  ask  for  space  in  your 
columns  to  say  that  the  statement  I  made  with  regard 
to  the  habit  of  drinking  in  young  birds  was  to  the 
following  effect?  The  chicks  that  I  have  observed 
pick  instinctively  at  any  small  objects  at  suitable 
distance.  If  a  small  drop  of  water  be  such  an  object, 
they  will  peck  at  that.  But  if  a  shallow  tin  of  water 
be  placed  in  their  run  the  stimulus  of  the  sight  of 
still  water  does  not  evoke  any  instinctive  drinking 
response.  If  there  be  grains  of  sands  or  food  or 
other  objects  at  the  bottom  of  the  tin,  they  will  peck 
at  these,  and  incidentally  find  the  water.  Sometimes 
they  will  peck  at  a  bubble  on  the  brim.  Sometimes, 


*  As  Prof.  Morgan  explained,  in  a  communication  to  Science,  he 
refrained  from  taking  an  active  part  in  this  discussion  because  he  was 
engaged  at  the  time  on  his  "  Habit  and  Instinct,"  in  which  the  subject 
was  to  be  fully  considered.  Since  then  that  work  has  appeared,  and 
in  acute,  philosophical  insight,  clearness,  and  general  charm  of  treat- 
ment, is  equal  to  anything  that  has  yet  come  from  this  able  writer's 
pen.  In  this  work  he  has  also,  in  the  most  generous  way,  acknow- 
ledged the  contributions  of  myself  and  others  to  the  subject  under 
consideration. — W.  M. 


DISCUSSIONS   ON  INSTINCT  293 

when  one  is  thus  led  to  drink,  others  will  follow  by 
imitation,  No  sooner  does  the  beak  touch  the  water 
than,  in  the  domestic  chick,  up  goes  the  head,  and 
the  instinctive  drinking  response  is  shown.  I  have 
seen  ducklings  waddle  through  the  tin  repeatedly  and 
not  stop  to  drink,  though  I  had  reasons  for  believing 
that  they  were  thirsty,  for  when  I  dipped  the  beak 
of  one  of  them  beneath  the  water  he  drank  eagerly, 
and  continued  to  do  so  for  some  time.  On  the  other 
hand,  a  little  moor-hen  or  water-hen,  when  I  quickly 
lowered  it,  at  about  sixteen  hours  old,  into  water,  drank 
so  soon  as  its  breast  touched  the  surface.  It  then 
swam  off  with  instinctive  definiteness  of  co-ordinated 
leg-movements. 

The  statement  of  fact  (so  far  as  my  observations  go) 
that  I  made  was  this :  That  the  sight  of  still  water 
evoked  no  instinctive  response ;  but  that  the  touch  of 
water  in  the  bill  at  once  evoked  the  characteristic 
instinctive  behaviour.  C.  LLOYD  MORGAN. 


INSTINCT  AND  EDUCATION  IN  BIRDS.* 

THE  discussion,  first  provoked  by  the  note  in  Science 
of  14th  February,  relative  to  the  origin  of  instinct  and 
the  inheritance  of  acquired  habitual  actions,  and  the 
remark  of  Prof.  Wesley  Mills  (p.  441)  that  "before 
drawing  conclusions  from  observations  on  domestic 
animals,  it  is  well  to  consider  similar  facts  in  connection 
with  their  wild  congeners,"  have  led  me  to  make  a  few 
experiments  upon  a  fledgling  of  our  common  kingbird 


*  By  Prof.  H.  C.  Bumpus,  in  Science,  N.S.,  vol.  iv.,  No.  &6,  21st 
August  1896. 


294  ANIMAL   INTELLIGENCE 

• 

(Tyrannus  tyrannus),  captured  2nd  July,  as  it  was 
taking  one  of  its  first  lessons  in  flight. 

As  is  well  known,  the  kingbird  is  exclusively  insec- 
tivorous, and  generally  captures  its  prey  on  the  wing, 
though  it  does  not  refuse  insects  that  may  lurk  in  the 
foliage,  and  it  may  occasionally  descend  to  the  ground 
in  pursuit  of  grasshoppers,  whose  movements  have  be- 
trayed their  whereabouts.  Being  thus,  in  its  activities, 
so  different  from  the  omnivorous  chick,  and  belonging, 
moreover,  to  the  great  group  of  Gymnopsedes,  or  birds 
which,  naked-born,  are  fed  in  the  nest,  we  might  expect 
certain  differences  from  the  instincts  and  habits  of  the 
precocious,  downy  chick.  Such  differences  may  throw 
light  upon  the  questions  of  Comparative  Psychology, 
though,  as  the  material  for  purposes  of  generalisation  is 
augmented,  they  may  prove  to  be  variations  of  no  direct 
suggestive  value. 

From  2nd  to  the  llth  July  the  bird,  almost  inces- 
santly calling  for  food,  was  kept  in  the  house  and  fed 
from  the  hand  with  shreds  of  meat,  moist  bread,  and  a 
few  insects.  Water  was  taken  from  the  wet  finger,  not 
as  a  drop  from  the  tip,  but  finger  and  all  were  seized, 
the  subsequent  motions  of  deglutition  being  the  same 
as  though  any  large  morsel  were  being  engulfed.  To  the 
present  day  (16th  July)  the  bird  has  utterly  refused  to 
accept  the  pendent  drop;  nor  could  it  be  induced  to 
peck  a  drop  from  a  leaf  or  from  the  surface  of  any 
object  whatever. 

On  llth  July  I  offered  the  bird  a  small  porcelain 
dish  (such  as  is  used  for  extract  of  beef)  filled  with 
water.  Though  hungry,  and  presumably  thirsty,  no 
effort  was  made  towards  taking  the  water,  but  the  dish 
was  repeatedly  seized  with  the  same  eager  fluttering 
that  characterised  the  general  reception  of  any  proffered 
article,  edible  or  not.  (It  was  noted  that  the  tongue 


DISCUSSIONS   ON  INSTINCT  295 

during  this  act  was  in  rapid  motion.)  While  making 
an  unusually  awkward  lunge  at  the  edge  of  the  dish  the 
bill  was  accidentally  thrust  deep  into  the  water,  and 
quickly  withdrawn  with  an  unmistakable  air  of  surprise, 
followed  by  an  effort  to  eat  the  water  held  between  the 
mandibles.  The  jaws  snapped,  the  tongue  could  be 
seen  shooting  back  and  forth,  and  the  head,  first  held 
horizontally,  was  only  slowly  tipped  backward,  and  then 
not  in  the  way  of  the  chick,  described  as  instinctively 
perfect,  but  after  the  retching  method  of  mouthing  and 
swallowing  any  object  not  readily  responsive  to  the  con- 
tractions of  deglutition,  and  which  must  needs  have  the 
added  assistance  of  the  attraction  of  gravitation. 

Though  the  porcelain  dish  was  afterwards  repeatedly 
offered  from  llth  to  the  16th  July,  and  invariably 
evoked  notes  of  approval,  the  bird,  in  securing  the  liquid, 
always  bit  the  edge,  and  never  once  dipped  the  beak 
beneath  the  surface,  nor  drank  in  the  approved  method 
of  the  chick.  The  earlier  awkward  movements,  however, 
were  greatly  improved  through  repetition.  The  sub- 
stance of  the  water  seemed  never  to  be  visually  observed, 
and  the  empty  dish  held  in  the  hand  evoked  the  same 
clamorous  approval  as  when  filled  with  water,  and  was 
later  recognised,  even  when  accidentally  met,  though  a 
saucer  which  had  not  contained  food  or  water  evoked 
no  sign  of  interest. 

On  the  morning  of  12th  July,  it  was  noted  that  if 
water  was  allowed  to  fall  from  a  height,  the  bird  became 
greatly  agitated,  opened  its  mouth,  and  vigorously  struck 
at  the  descending  drops,  and  several  were  swallowed 
with  evident  signs  of  relish.  Up  to  this  time,  while  in 
my  possession,  the  animal  had  taken  food  only  when 
placed  by  the  fingers  in  the  gaping  mouth,  and  had 
made  no  effort  to  pick,  selectively,  the  food  from  be- 
tween the  fingers,  nor  had  it  even  changed  its  position 


296  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

on  the  approach  of  food,  but  had  remained  in  one  place, 
fluttering  and  incessantly  calling  until  the  food  was 
brought  to  it.  On  the  morning  of  the  following  day, 
falling  drops  were  again  struck  at  and  seized,  though 
the  bird  did  not  relish  the  accompanying  wetting.  At 
noon  the  drops  were  again  seized  and  swallowed.  Signs 
of  disapproval  of  the  wetting  were  shown  on  the  morn- 
ing of  the  14th,  and  on  the  morning  of  the  15th  the 
bird  avoided  falling  water  and  was  content  with  biting 
the  edge  of  the  dish. 

From  the  above  observations  I  am  inclined  to  agree 
with  Prof  Mills  that  the  nature  of  eating  and  of 
drinking  are  not  radically  different,  and,  as  the  physical 
condition  of  substances  may  pass  imperceptibly  from 
solid  to  liquid,  so  the  physiological  processes  are  practi- 
cally the  same  whether  the  food  is  solid,  pultaceous, 
or  liquid,  though  I  should  not  attempt  to  compare 
too  closely  the  relative  perfection  of  the  two  processes. 
I  do  not,  moreover,  feel  that  the  first  act  of  drinking 
is,  in  its  totality,  necessarily  instinctive.  In  other 
words,  "when  a  chick  first  drinks  on  its  beak  being 
put  into  water"  the  act  may  be  considered  as,  very 
largely,  a  result  of  self-teaching. 

The  phenomena  of  eating  and  of  drinking  have  not, 
in  the  discussion,  been  definitely  defined,  and  there 
has  been  some  lack  of  discrimination  in  the  use  of  the 
word  "swallow."  The  beak,  moreover,  is  mentioned 
by  Profs.  Mills  and  Lloyd  Morgan  as  the  organ,  the 
stimulation  of  which  produces  the  act  of  drinking, 
though  Prof.  Baldwin  attributes  the  action  to  the 
stimulation  to  the  sense  of  taste. 

It  seems  to  the  writer  that  the  entire  process  of 
eating  and  drinking  should  be  divided  into  three  parts, 
viz.  (1)  seizure ;  (2)  mouthing  or  mulling ;  and  (3)  de- 
glutition. It  is  only  in  the  first  of  these  that  the  term 


DISCUSSIONS  ON   INSTINCT  297 

"  instinct,"  in  the  sense  of  inherited  habit,  is  necessarily 
used.  Baldwin,  Mills,  and  Lloyd  Morgan  are  practically 
agreed  that  the  young  chick  seizes  instinctively  on 
being  stimulated  by  some  small,  striking  object  at  a 
suitable  distance.  This  object  may  be  nutritious,  or  it 
may  be  a  feather,  a  pencil,  or  a  nail-head,  a  drop  of 
water,  or  a  drop  of  ink.  The  mechanism  is  ready,  and 
the  stimulus,  properly  applied,  produces  the  instinctive 
mechanical,  or,  as  Lloyd  Morgan  would  prefer,  organic 
action. 

The  object  now  held  between  the  mandibles  and 
mulled  is  subject  to  the  examination,  strikingly  evident 
in  the  kingbird,  of  the  tongue,  an  organ  at  the  same 
time  tactile,  gustatory,  and  locomotory.  It  stands  at 
the  portal  which  leads  from  instinctive  to  reflex  action, 
and  is  at  once  the  inspector,  reporter,  and  director  of 
that  which  first  stimulated  the  eye,  and  now,  through  a 
motor  response,  has  been  placed  where  it  may  stimulate 
other  special  sense  organs — taste,  touch,  and  probably 
smell.  It  is  here  that  instinctive  action  becomes  guided 
by  individual  control,  and  intelligence  begins  to  act 
through  experience. 

The  mouth-parts  of  the  young  kingbird  are  large, 
and  the  deliberate  movements  are  easily  observed.  I 
feel,  therefore,  that  this  second,  and  essential,  portion 
of  the  process  of  eating  and  drinking  in  the  small- 
mouthed  chick  may  have  been  neglected  or  overlooked. 
Moreover,  the  process  of  the  perfecting  of  the  action  of 
eating  and  drinking,  through  repetition  and  the  guid- 
ance of  the  intelligence  is,  in  the  kingbird,  com- 
paratively slow,  and  inclines  one,  on  the  grounds  of 
Comparative  Psychology,  to  the  belief  that  the  complex 
act  of  the  chick  may  be  only  apparently  perfect  from 
the  first,  the  successive  processes  of  co-ordination  being 
in  the  chick  much  more  quickly  perfected. 


298  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

The  process  in  the  kingbird,  as  above  detailed,  gives 
at  least  an  opportunity  for  the  more  definite  limitations 
of  those  actions  which  Prof.  Baldwin  has,  perhaps 
unfortunately,  called  half-congenital. 

The  action  of  the  callow  bird  in  deglutition  is  prob- 
ably performed  as  a  reflex  on  the  stimulation  of  the 
presence  of  food  in  the  pharynx.  Small  fragments  upon 
the  beak,  and  in  the  anterior  portion  of  the  mouth,  are 
not  perceived,  and  do  not  quiet  the  almost  irritating 
clamour  of  the  gaping  young.  The  enormous  size  of 
the  mouth,  the  thickened  "  lips,"  and  the  bright-coloured 
concentric  markings  of  the  oral  walls,  make  a  target, 
the  sensitive  centre  of  which  (the  opening  of  the 
cesophagus)  only  a  most  awkward  parent  could  fail 
to  hit.  We  might  argue  that  the  young  nestling  has 
not,  at  first,  a  definite  sense  of  taste ;  and  actual 
experiment  on  the  kingbird  shows  that  most  unsavoury 
morsels,  when  placed  in  the  mouth,  are  swallowed, 
though  not  without  subsequent  signs  of  surprise,  if 
not  of  disgust.  It  is  not,  then,  difficult  to  perceive 
that  the  young  bird,  while  still  within  the  nest, 
acquires,  as  a  result  of  the  selective  activity  of  the 
parent,  a  taste  for  certain  food.  The  discriminative 
exercise  of  the  sense  of  taste  is  thus  a  result  of  direct 
tuition.  The  young  cow-bird,  whose  foster-parent  has 
been  a  vireo,  will  doubtless  acquire  a  relish  for  food 
very  different  from  that  enjoyed  by,  perchance,  its  own 
brother,  but  the  ward  of  a  graminivorous  finch. 

It  may  be  objected  that  the  orphan  chick,  selecting 
food  without  the  discriminative  direction  of  a  parent, 
is  not  a  parallel  case  with  the  young  kingbird.  The 
bird  in  my  possession  was  so  tame,  that  when  it  reached 
an  age  comparable  with  the  newly-hatched  chick,  I 
could  take  it  into  the  fields  and  observe  it  as  it  foraged, 
chick-fashion,  for  itself.  I  think  that  I  saw  it  capture 


DISCUSSIONS  ON   INSTINCT  299 

its  first  insect — I,  at  least,  observed  its  ability  as  an 
insect  catcher  develop  from  almost  nil  to  expertness. 
During  these  excursions,  observations  were  made  and 
data  collected  for  the  determination  of  the  following 
questions :  Is  there  an  inherited  discrimination  in 
favour  of  the  capture  of  certain  edible  insects  in  pre- 
ference to  others  ?  If  unsavoury  insects  are  un- 
wittingly taken  into  the  mouth,  are  they  swallowed  ? 
If  ejected  from  the  mouth,  are  there  signs  of  disgust  ? 
When  unsavoury  examples  are  met  a  second  time,  are 
they  avoided  ? 

To  the  first  question  I  can  reply  that,  at  first,  all 
insects  were  indiscriminately  seized.  A  vile-smelling 
hemipteron  was  as  tempting  as  a  luscious  grasshopper 
or  cricket.  Distinctly  unsavoury  insects  (Tetraopes, 
Coccinella)  were  not  touched  a  second  time,  except  with 
the  greatest  caution ;  though  species  which  were  only 
moderately  distasteful  (LemcC)  might  be  taken  and 
devoured,  but  iviihout  relish.  In  one  case  a  large 
brown  ant — the  first  found — was  seized,  mulled,  and 
vigorously  ejected.  The  next  day  the  bird  was  taken 
to  the  same  tree,  and,  on  perceiving  a  second  ant  of 
the  same  species,  eyed  it  closely  and  deliberately,  and 
then  shook  its  head  and  vigorously  wiped  its  beak, 
with  unmistakable  signs  of  recollection.  I  mention 
this  particular  case,  though  it  is  not  the  only  one,  to 
illustrate  how  quickly  the  bird  was  self  -  taught,  for 
the  ant  was  only  one  of  a  dozen  different  species  of 
insects  which  were  met,  and  it  was  so  instantly  seized 
that  a  prolonged  visual  image  was  not  gained.  I  might 
add  that  the  kingbird  subsequently  refused  even  to  try 
the  edible  qualities  of  a  large  black  ant  of  a  different 
species,  though  the  bird  watched  the  insect's  move- 
ments with  much  interest.  Profiting  by  mistakes,  it 
soon  learned  to  examine  critically  all  strange  food, 


300  ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE 

before  the  tongue  should  force  the  contents  of  the 
mouth  on  towards  the  pharynx. 

Can  we  not,  then,  conclude  that  the  forcing  of  accept- 
able food  and  drink  into  the  pharynx  is  not  "instinctive," 
but  is  the  result  of  a  series  of  satisfactory  discoveries 
of  the  young  bird,  which  lead  up  to  the  placing  of  the 
food  where  it  will  bring  about  the  stimulation  of  the 
reflex  centre  of  the  gullet,  and  the  accomplishment  of 
the  final  act  of  swallowing  ? — a  series  which  is  intelli- 
gently adopted  by  the  bird,  and  improved  by  practice. 

It  is  perhaps  well,  before  closing,  to  revert  to  the 
peculiar  habit  of  the  bird  in  snapping  at  falling  drops. 
From  the  first,  the  attention  was  markedly  attracted  by 
flying  insects,  and  any  small  objects  in  motion  seemed 
to  have  a  peculiar  charm.  From  this  fact  I  am  inclined 
to  think  that  the  seizing  of  drops  was  no  more  than  the 
striking  at  moving  objects,  though  it  is  possible  that 
the  adult  habitually  takes  water  on  the  wing  by  seizing 
falling  drops  of  dew  or  rain. 


INDEX, 


ABBOT,  C.,  on  the  Chipmunk,  57 
Advances,  intellectual,  how  made,  22 
American    Naturalist,    account    re 

feigning,  69 
Audubon,  on  the  Red  Squirrel,  69 

BACHMANN,  on  the  Red  Squirrel,  57 
Baldwin,  J.  M.,  on  instinct,  285,  287, 
289 

-  on  social  heredity,  etc.,  290,  291 
Beaver,  power  of  adaptation  in,  41 
Bedlington  terrier  puppies,  diary  of, 

Beethoven  in  music,  41 
Bell,  R.,  on  the  Chickaree,  75 

on  the  Mink,  78 

Bishop,  J.  P.,  on  hibernation,  79 
Boy,  views  as  to  dog's  thoughts,  etc. ,  3 
Breed,  its  influence,  34 
Butler,  A.  W.,  on  hibernation,  79 
Bumpus,    H.    C.,    on    instinct    and 
education  in  birds,  293,  et  seq. 

CAT,  neglect  of  study  of,  39 
Cataplexy,  hypnotism,  etc.,  views  on, 

66,  67,  70 

Caution  in  interpretation,  19,  27 
Cavy  (or  Guinea-pig),  the  young,  at 

birth,  244 

contrast  between,  dog  and  cat, 

244 

conclusions,  general,  in  regard 

to  rabbit  and,  245,  246 

development  of  senses  in,  244 

-  diary  of,  244-45 

ears,  at  birth  in,  241 

eating  in,  242 

eyes,  condition  at  birth,  241 


Cavy,  locomotion  in,  241,  242 

—  Preyer  on,  245 

—  progress  in,  242,  243 

rabbit,  compared  with,  244,  245 

remarks  on  diary  of,  244,  245 

smell  in,  241,  244 

teeth  in,  241 

taste  in,  241,  242,  244 

voice  in,  242 

wiping  the  face  by,  242 

Cerebral  cortex,  functional  develop- 
ment of,  in,  264 
general    conclusions    regarding, 

Chick,  the  diary  of,  258,  et  seq. 

colour  of  feathers  in,  261 

drinking  by,  260 

feathering  in,  261 

hearing  in,  259,  260 

individual  differences  in,  262 

instinctive    fear    in,    259,    261, 

262 
—  method  of  eating  meat,  260 

mother,  influence  of,  on  260 

pecking  at  objects  by,  258,  259, 

260 

Preyer  on,  261 

remarks  on  diary  of,  261,  et  seq. 

scratching  by,  260 

sense  of  support  in,  262 

some      conclusions     regarding, 

262,  263 

Spalding,  D.,  on,  261 

swallowing  by,  258,  260 

taste  in,  259 

vision  in,  259 

warmth,  effect  of,  on,  259,  262 

wiping,  reflex  in,  259 

wiping  beak  by,  260 

301 


302 


INDEX 


Chickaree,  significance  of  wide  ranges 

of,  73 

Child  and  dog  compared  morally,  25 
Chimpanzee,  expression  of,  etc.,  42 
Chipmunk,   habits,    etc.,  of,  53,  55, 

57,  59,  72 

Cortex  at  birth,  in  the  dog,  268,  270 
in  the  dog  and  cat  compared, 

270,  273 

in  the  rabbit,  273,  274 

in  the  cavy,  274 

in  birds,  275 

general    conclusions   regarding, 

275,  276 
Craig, ,  on  the  Chipmunk,  72 

DARWIN,  C.,  on  feigning,  on  migra- 
tion, etc.,  29,  42,  47,  67 
Dawes,  on  Cocker  Spaniel,  33, 

on  horse  training,  43,  44 

Dog,  special  cases,  33,  35,  36,  39 
Dog  and  Cat  compared,  221,  et  seq. 
— —  cat  in  advance  of,  in  co-ordina- 
tion of  movements,  225 

cats  and,  education,  227,  230 

comparison    of    the    brain    de- 
velopment in,  226 

conclusions,  general,  as  to  differ- 
ences between,  232,  233 

experience  and  instinct,  effect  of 

former  on  cat,  231 

independence  in   the  cat,  227, 

229 

intelligence  and  memory,  228 

reasoning  in  the  cat,  232 

slow     development     of     social 

instincts  in  the  cat,  227 

suggestibility  in  cat    and  dog, 

231 

will-power  in  the  cat,  228 

Dreaming  in  the  lower  animals,  37 

EARTHQUAKES  and  animals,  41 
Eating,  is  it  instinctive  ?  281,  et  seq. 
Education,  influence  of,  8 
Elliott,  H.  W.,  on  drinking  of  newly- 
hatched  chicks,  282,  283 
Environment,  influence  of,  8 
Evolution  and  intelligence,  25 
Experiments  needed,  16 

FEIGNING  in  squirrels,  61 ,  62,  63,  72 

its  nature,  64 

and  intelligence  in  squirrels,  73 

Ferron, ,  on  the  dog,  36 

on  the  trotting  horse,  44 

Foundation  of  the  Society  for  the 

Study  of  Comparative  Psychology 

in  Montreal,  32,  46 


GENIUS  and  animal  performances,  13, 

19 
Germ  of  human  faculties  in  animals, 

20 

Germs  and  animals,  41 
Gird  wood,  G.  P.,  account  of  Chickaree, 

73 
Groos,  C.,  study  of  play  in  animals, 

49 
on  the  comparative  psychologist, 

282,  and  Preface,  p.  vi. 
on  play  in  animals,  272 

HABITS,  hereditary,  281 

Hall,    Marshall,   on   hibernation    in 

bats,  80,  86,  107 

Harris, ,  on  the  beaver,  41 

Heidenheim,  on  hypnotism,  65 
Hibernation,  discussion  of  nature  of, 

105,  et  seq. 
in  cold-blooded  animals,  79,  82, 

108 
in  human  beings,  D.  W.  Ross, 

A.  Robinson,  and  C.  K.  Clarke,  87, 

89,90 

—  in  pigs,  Millar,  87 
in  squirrels,  57,  59 

in    warm-blooded   animals,   80, 

81,  82 

Himalayan  rabbits,  239,  et  seq. 
Homing  instinct,  29 

—  pigeons,    suggestion  as    to  the 
nature  of  their  feats,  14 

Horse,  and  bears,  44 

—  causes'     that     retard     mental 
development  in,  43 

special  case,  44 

—  training  of  the,  43 
Hydrophobia  scare,    the   veterinary 

profession  and  the  lower  animals, 
87,  89,  90 

IMAGINATION  in  animals,  21,  37 
Imperfection  of  instinct,  289 
Individual,  history  of,  important,  67 
Inference  from  men  to  animals,  20 
Inferiority  of  animals  in  all  respects 

questioned,  15 

Intelligence  and  hibernation,  57 
Instinct,  to    explain  animal    intelli- 
gence, 19 

JONES,  T.  MANN,  remarks  on  kitten, 
tom-cat, 'sheep-dogs,  etc.,  203,  204, 
220,  221" 

KITTEN,  the  diary  of,  175,  etc. 

advance  of,  202 

affection  in,  200 

anger  in,  189 


INDEX 


303 


Kitten,  attachment  of,  197,  199 

— -  behaviour    towards    bird,    195, 

199 

catnip,  194 

dog,  195,  197,  200,  '201 

fire,  196 

flower-pot,  193,  197 

lap,  193,  195 

mouse,  193,  194,  200 

parrot,  188 

biting  in,  182 

— —  bookshelves,  special  experience 

with,  by,  184-88,  204,  205 
call  of  "Puss  !  puss!"  effect  of, 

181,  183,  185,  189,  196,  197,  201 
catching  of  tail  by,  189 

catching  flies,  etc.,  by,  188,  193, 

194,  201 

caution  in  leaping,  191,  198,  199 

choice  by,  198 

climbing  in,  181,  182,  190,  191, 

192,  194,  195,  199,  200 

concealment  by,  193,  197 

conclusions,  general,  regarding, 

205,  206 
condition  of  eyes  and  ears   at 

birth,  176 

covering  by,  193 

crouching  by,  190,  195 

crying  in,  183,   186,   187,   188, 

191,  192,  197,  199,  201 

discussion  of  diary  of,  202,  etc. 

dislike  in,  178 

eating,  etc. ,  in,  205 

expression  altered  in,  197 

of  intelligence  in,  188 

fatigue  in,  200 

fear  in,  186,  187,  190,  191,  192, 

194,  196,  200,  202 

feeding  of  milk,  185,  186,  187 

of  solid  food,  189, 191, 193, 

194 

fondness  shown  for  fish  by,  197 

growth  of,  189,  191,  196,  197 

hearing  in,  177,  179,   181   192, 

202 
hissing  in,  177,  178,  180,   181, 

182,  184,  187 

influence  of  environment  on, 

176,  189 

Jones,  T.  Mann,  remarks  of,  203, 

204,  220,  221 

leaping  by,  188,  192,  193,  194, 

201 

licking  in,  181,  182,  190 

law  of  association  as  explana- 
tion in,  205 

movements  of  ears,  178.  184, 

202 

of  eyes,  185 


Kitten,  movements  of  head,  179 
of  hind  legs,  179 

—  of  tail,  179,  182,  183,  186 
in  crawling,  176 

—  in  sleep,  187 
opening  of  eyes  in,  177 

—  out  of  doors,  197 

pain,   sense,  latent   period   in, 

— persistence  in,  196,  197,  199 
physical  changes  in,  188,   194, 

196,  197 
play  in,  181,  182,  185,  188,  192, 

195,  197,  203 
power  of  attention  in,  198 

—  pupil,  reflex  in,  203 

—  punishment  of,  193,  196,  198 
purring  in,  195,  196,  200 

—  quivering  of  ears  in,  178 

reaction  towards  dog  by,   176, 

177,  180,  203 

reflexes,  pupillary,  179 

winking,  179,  202 

resemblances  to  mature  cat,  198 

—  running  off,  189,  193,  194 
sand-pan,  experiences  with,  186, 

187,  189,  190,  193,  197,  199,  204 

scratching,  180,  198,  200,  203 

shadows,    observation    of,    by, 

183 

sleeping  in,  181 

smell  in,  176,  177,  179,  193 

sniffing  in,  189 

sociability  in,  196,  199,  200 

stalking  in,  189 

stretching  in,  187 

tactile  sensibility  in,  176,  179 

taste  in,  176,  179,  197 

teeth,  period  of  appearance  in, 

182 

temperature,  sense  in,  176 

toilet-making  by  mother,  186 

by  self,  186,  188,  195 

use  of  claws,  189 

use  of  mechanical   means    by, 

191,  199 

uneasiness  in,  176,  177 

vision  in,  178-84,  202,  203 

voice  in,  179 

walking  and  wandering  of,  180, 

183,  188,  192,  194,  196,  198,  199, 

201 
watching    movements    of,   192, 

1«/O 

waywardness,  etc.,  in,  196, 197, 

199 

LINDSAY, ,  works  on  Animal  In- 
telligence, 26 
Litter,  different  members  of,  7 


304 


INDEX 


Lucas,  F.  A.,  on  pecking  in  pheasants, 
etc.,  283,  285 

MAN,  a  law  unto  himself,  etc. ,  14 

Man's  superiority  ;  its  basis,  26,  39 

M'Eachran,  D.,  intelligence  in  horses, 
73 

paper  by,  on  a  dog,  33 

Mental  life  in  the  mass  of  mankind. 
10 

Metcalf, ,  on  dogs,  36 

Migration,  the  explanation  of,  30 

Millar,  F,,  on  imprisoned  swine,  87 

on  a  pig,  40 

on  a  dog,  35 

J.,  on  a  Scotch  Collie,  36 

Mind  in  animals,  its  nature,  17 

Minot,  C.  S. ,  on  Comparative  Psy- 
chology, Preface,  p.  vi. 

Monkey,  study  of  the,  42 

and  dog  compared,  8 

Moral  nature  in  animals,  21 

Morgan,  C.  Lloyd,  discussion  of  his 
views  on  Instinct,  277,  et  seq. 

letter  on  "The  Habit  of  Drink- 
ing in  Young  Birds,"  292,  293 

mental  attitude  of  young  birds,  49 

—  on  young  pheasants,  262 
Motives  complex,  11 

NEWTON  and  space  perception,  14 
OWL-PIGEON,  259,  261 

PACKARD,  on  origin  of  the  dog,  37 
Parallelism  in  thinking  of  child  and 

dog,  13 
Pease,  ,  on  black- and-tan  bitch, 

39 

People,  some  hard  to  understand,  4 
Pig,  neglect  of  the  study  of  the,  40 

trained,  40 

Pigeons,  the  young — 

colour  of  feathers  in,  251 

iris  in,  251 

conclusions,  general,  regarding, 

227,  258 

condition  when  hatched  out,  250 

conditions    under   which    kept, 

246,  247 

—  diary  of,  247,  et  seq. 

Dragoon  (pure  bred),  diary  of, 

250,  et  seq. 
ears,  condition  of,  252 

—  effect  of  stroking,  254 
warmth  and  cold  on,  248, 

254 

Environment,  effects  of,  on,  249 

eyes,  condition  of,  250,  252 

when  hatched,  247 


Pigeons,  the  young,  feathering  in, 
249,  250,  251,  253 

flying  by,  251-253 

growth  in,  252,  253 

herring  in,  248,  250,  255,  256 

homing  tendency  in,  249 

iris,  colour  of,  253,  257 

movements,  general,  249 

of  beak,  250 

of  head,  250 

—  of  wings,  248,  251,  252 

reflex,  252 

in  walking,  249 

in  flying,  250 

Owl  (pure-bred),  pigeon,  259, 261 

pecking  by,  252,253 

—  at  an  intruder  by,  250,  251 
snapping,  etc.,  in,  255 

—  positions  of,  256 

—  psychic  and  physical  develop- 
ment in,  256,  257 

—  progress  by,  255 

—  pupillary  reflex  in,  255 
—  pugnacity  in,  252,  253 

—  reflex  movements  in,  252 

—  remarks  on  the  diary  of,  253,  et 
seq. 

resemblances  and  differences  in, 

254 

sense  of  support  in,  248,  250 

sitting  in,  252 

short-faced  tumbler  (pure-bred), 

diary  of,  252,  et  seq. 

snapping  with  beak  of,  249,  250 

soliciting  food,  249 

standing,  252,  253 

tactile  sensibility  in,  247,  249, 

252,  254 

taste  and  smell  in,  254 

vision  in,  253,  255,  256 

voice  in,  253,  255,  256 

winking  by,  252 

reflex  in,  248,  255 

Prentiss,  D.  W.,  discussion  of  pheno- 
mena observed  by  Czermak,  etc., 
65,70 

President  of  American  Psychological 
Association,  views  of,  on  psycho- 
logy, 48 

Preyer, ,  on  shamming  death,  68 

on  chicks,  261 

Problems,  37 

Psychic  development  and  physical 
correlation,  267,  et  seq. 

of  young  animals,  113,  et  seq. 

bearing  of  other  studies  on,  113 

Psychologists'  attitude  towards  the 
subject  of  Animal  Intelligence,  9 

Psychology,  in  colleges,  etc.,  48 

its  tendencies,  48 


INDEX 


305 


Public  mind  and  Animal  Intelligence, 

Puppy,  mongrel,  diary  of,  207,  et  seq. 

—  advantages    and    disadvantages 
over  pure-bred,  218 

—  adaptability  in,  212,  213 

—  barking  in,  212 

—  behaviour  towards  a  bone,  212 

—  biting  in,  211 

—  characteristic     features,     when 
appearing,  220 

—  compared  with  pure-bred,  215, 
et  seq. 

—  comparison  of  intelligence  with 
that  of  St  Bernard,  219 

—  concussion,  effects  on,  209 

—  conditions  under  which  kept,  207 

—  crawling  in,  209 

—  discussion  of  diary  of,  213,  et  seq. 

—  eating  by,  211 

—  effect  of  mingling  with  others  of 
its  own  kind,  216 

—  environment,  effect  of,  209,  212, 
213,  217 

—  gnawing  in,  210 
growling  in,  210 

-  hearing  in,  208,  210,  212,  216 
intelligence  in,  212 

—  investigation  by,  211 

locomotion  in,  210,  211,  212 

movements  in,  of  ears,  208,  217 

eyes,  209 

hind-legs,  209,  212,  217 

jaws,  210 

tail,  209,  212,  217 

muscular  sense  in,  214 

opening  of  eyes  in,  208 

—  perseverance  of,  212 

physical  changes  in,   209,  212, 

220 

-  play  in,  211,  212,  216 

—  pure-bred  compared  with,   215 
et  seq. 

—  reflex  effect  through  ear,  217 
resemblances    to    mature    dog, 

212,  213. 

—  sense  of  pain  in,  207,  213 

sense  of  support  in,  207 

sexual  feeling  in,  213 

shaking  of  head,  effect  of,  in, 

211 

shyness  in,  211 

sociability  in,  211,  212 

—  smell  in,  207-10,  213,  214 
starting  in,  210 

sudden  development  in,  219 

—  taste  in,  207-9,  213 

temperature  sense  in,  207,  213 

teeth  in,  209,  211 

vigour  of,  207 


Puppy,  mongrel,  vision  in,  209,  210, 


voice  in,  207 

weaning  of,  209 

winking  in,  211 

Puppies,  pure-bred — 

anger  in,  159 

are  teats  found  by  smell  ?  148 

association,  mental,  in,  138,  139 

attention  in,  133,  161 

barking  in,  127,  129,  134,  139, 

—  biting  and  chewing  by,  145 

—  changes,  physical  in,  131.   142, 
145,  168,  169,  170 

—  chewing  in,  128,  129 

concussion,   effect  of,   in,    144, 

154 
co-ordination  of  movement  in, 

145 
crying,  crawling,  sucking  in, 

118,  132,  147,  148 

—  differences  in  breeds  of,  170 

—  differentiation,  sexual,  in,    144, 
145 

dreaming  by,  162 

—  drinking  by,  127,  128 

—  environment,  influence  of,  164 

—  exhaustion  in,  124 

—  experience,  effect  of,  143,  166 

—  expression;  change  in,  130 

—  eyes,  when  open,  120 
— -  fatigue  in,  161 

fear  in,  129,  130,  134,  136,  144, 

145,  158 

—  feeling  in,  119 

general    conclusions    regarding, 

172-74 
growling  in,  125,  128,  137,  143, 

—  habits,  barking,  crying,  etc.,  141 

—  hearing,  advance  in,  125,  137 
discussion  of,  in,  153 

perception  of  direction  of 

sound,  etc.,  127,  130-34,  137 

reflex,  121 

special  tests  of,  in,  125 

—  humour  in,  161 

—  hunger,  when  felt,  126 

—  imitation  in  lapping  water,  136 
in  general,  138,  139,  163 

individual    differences    in,   124, 

137 

—  individuality  in,  131,  166 

—  interest  in  surroundings,  137 

—  investigation  by,  138,  140 

—  irritation  shown,  128,  131,  145 
jaws  and  front  legs,  use  of,  121 

-  lapping  in,  127,   128,  133,  136, 


306 


INDEX 


Puppies,  pure-bred  ;  latent  period  of 
pain  sense,  144 

licking  in,  120,  124,125 

lip-call,  effect  of,  126,  161 

movements,  when  sucking,  129 

of  hind-limbs,  129 

of  head,  ears,  etc.,  129, 140 

memory  in,  142,  159 

muscular  sense  in,  149 

new  surroundings,  influence  of, 

118,  120,  130,  145 

pain,  sense  of,  in,  148 

periods  of  development  in,  167 

physical  correlation,  168,  170 

play  in,  122,  123,  126,  128,  131, 

136,  145 

remarks  on,  155 

pleasure  in  new  straw,  133 

on  seeing  human  being,  135 

reasoning  in,  165 

recognition  in,  160 

reflexes,  associated  in,  166 

in  hearing,  121 

in  scratching,  124 

in  winking,  121,  124,  134 

retiring-place  of,  134,  142 

scratching  in,  127,  132, 136,  141, 

144,  156 
similarity  to  the  mature  dog  in, 

163 
smell  in,  119, 120,  122, 123,  129, 

133,  144,  151 

suggestive  action  in,  163 

tactile  sensibility  in,  149 

tail  movements,   120,    123,  130, 

132,  135,  144,  145,  157 

tails,  wagging  and  position  of, 

use  in  play,  128 

taste  in,  131,  134 

and  smell,  151,  152 

teeth  in,  130 

temperature  sense  in,  121,  149 

the  mysterious,  166 

uneasiness  when  removed  from 

pen,  etc.,  118,  120,  130 
vision  in,  121, 123, 128, 130,  131, 

133,  152 

voice  in,  158 

whip,  behaviour  towards,  141 

where  kept,  117 

QUALIFICATIONS  to  understand  ani- 
mals, 15 

RABBIT,  the  young — 

behaviour    when    placed    with 

others  of  older  litter,  240 
condition  of  skin,  234,  235,  236, 

240,  241 


Babbits,  the  young,  condition  of  feet, 

240 
co-ordinated  movements  in,  243, 

244 

diary  of  the  common,  233,  et  seq. 

pure-bred  Himalayan,  239, 


early  development  of  taste  and 

smell  in,  244 
ears,  position,  movements,  etc., 

of,  234,  236,  237 

eating  in,  237-40 

excitability  in,  239 

effect  of  warmth  on,  235,  239, 

240 

eye  reflexes  in,  237 

fear  in,  238,  239 

growth  in,  235,  236 

-  hearing  in,  233,  236,  237,  240 
hearing    and    vision    compared 

with  these  senses  in  dog  and  cat,  244 

investigation  by,  240 

jerky  movements  in,  243 

locomotion   in,  234,    237,  238, 

239,  240 

loping  in,  237,  239 

movements  in,   234,   235,    236, 

239,  240 

of  ears,  compared,  243 

generally  compared,  243 

memory  in,  238 

opening  of  eyes  in,  236,  240 

—  pain,  sense  in,  243 

physical  and    psychic    changes 

in,  244 

—  play  in,  238 

psychical  maturity  in,  239 

remarks  based  on  the  diary  of 

rabbits,  243  et  seq. 

scratching  in,  235,  239,  240 

smell  in,  234,  235,  238,  240 

tactile  sensibility  in  rabbits,  243 

taste  in,  234,  235 

taste  in  rabbit  as  compared  with 

dog  and  cat,  243 

twitching  in,  236 

vision  in,  233,  237,  238,  239,  240 

weaning  of,  238 

wiping  face,  235,  239 

voice,  absence  of,  243 

Reason  in  animals,  21 

Right  and  wrong,  recognition  of,   by 

animals,  24 
Robinson  A.,  on  hibernating  man,  88, 

89,90 
Rodents  and  plasticity  of  habits,  55 

inimical  appreciation  in,  60 

Romanes,  G.  J.,  reference  to  works 

of,  26 
influence  of,  49 


INDEX 


307 


Komanes,  G.  J.  on  feigning,  67,  68,  69 
Ross,  p.  W.,on  "  Sleepy  Joe,"  87 
Rule  in  interpretation  of  Animal  In- 
telligence, 11 

Ruttan,  R.  F.,  analysis  of  urine  of 
lethargic  woman,  102 

SCALE  in  intelligence,  23 
"Sense  experience"  in  animals,  9 
Senses  in  the  lower  animals,  28 
Shakespeare,  sources  of  his  power,  5 

and  Scott  in  literature,  29 

on  effects  of  fear,  68 

Shamming  death,  65,  66,  67 

Sheep  and  storms,  32,  40 

Sick  animals  and  Animal  Intelligence, 

Simpson, ,  on  the  dog,  38 

Singing  rodents,  59,  60 

Society    for   the    Study   of   Animal 

Intelligence,  founding  of,  46 
Spalding,  D.,  on  Chicks,  261 
Squirrels,  Black  and  Red,  compared, 

—  entering  traps,  53,  55 

flying,  and  sneezing,  56 

intelligence  in,  56 

nocturnal,  58 

Status  of  Comparative  Psychology,  49 


St  Bernard  puppies,  diary  of,  117, 144 
Studies,  detailed,  50 
Study,  of  animals,  how  to,  35 
Summary,    imperfect,     of    Author's 
views  on  Animal  Intelligence,  15 

THINKING,  different  meanings  of,  9 

Torrance, ,  on  sheep,  40 

Training  in  animals,  23,  33,  35 
Turkey  buzzard,  and  feigning,  69 

UNDERSTANDING  of  animals,  5 
Unsolved  problems,  29 

VETERINARY  profession,  and  Animal 

Intelligence,  30 
Views,     unscientific,    as    to    man's 

origin  and  relations,  18 

WATER,  aptitude  in  finding,  43 
Weismannism,  279,  286 
Woodchuck,  hibernation  in,  81,  82, 

et  seq. 
Words,   their  understanding  of,  by 

animals,  33,  34,  38,  39 
"Writer  of  the  Note"  on  Instinct, 

279,  282 

YATES,  W. ,  on  hibernation,  80,  81, 82 


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